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[转帖]癌症研究历史回顾和热点寻踪
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[转帖]癌症研究历史回顾和热点寻踪
癌症研究历史回顾和热点寻踪- 1(ZZ from DXY)

150多年前(1850年以前),人类对癌症的认识:

Galen 认为黑胆汁在组织内的积聚是癌变的根源。

Decartes 等认为癌症是的淋巴系统的病变。之后出现很多学说,最流行的是体液假说(Humoral hypothesis)。

当显微镜出现之后,细胞被发现了,细胞学说诞生了,之后病理学出现,随之,各种关于肿瘤的假说转而从体液学说转变为细胞学说。

(评论:早期假说其实最多只能算是人类的想象,很难说具有合理的科学依据,当然包括中医对肿瘤的看法。假说产生于已有的事实和对未知领域的想象或联想。事实增加,假说的数量会跟着增加。每个人占有的事实资料不同,想象力也不同,假说也不同。假说是人类对事物的探索性认识,假说促进了新的事实诞生,新的事实不断推动和修正假说。)
大约100年前,关于癌症研究出现了三个主要学说,这些学说已经接近理性:

1)刺激假说(The Irritation Hypothesis)
医生们很容易注意到肿瘤总是产生于那些迁延不愈的慢性炎症(破溃和损伤)的部位,比如皮肤的溃疡、窦道或者疤痕。这提示炎症与肿瘤似乎具有某种关系。随后很多尸检进一步证实体内癌症的发生也与长期慢性炎症具有密切的关系,这些事实促使19世纪后期临床医生Broussais和Billroth提出慢性炎症是癌症根源的假说。

该假说的主要依据:

1)以皮肤为例,肿瘤总发生在慢性炎症迁延不愈的部位,例如因为骨髓炎而引流的皮肤瘘管或各种慢性溃疡。
2)那些常常容易受到太阳曝晒的部位:面部和前臂癌症的发生率要远远高于不常被曝晒的部位,这些部位因为常常受到太阳曝晒而产生的慢性炎症,被Unna称为水手的皮肤(sailor’s skin).
3)克什米尔地区人冬季为了取暖常常环抱一个怀炉,为此腹部皮肤癌很流行。这个现象在日本也很流行。
4)其他的例子不胜枚举,癌症常常出现在用烟斗抽烟的下唇。阴茎癌常常发生在不进行环切的民族。很多工业相关的癌症,如清扫烟尘煤灰的工人,经常与沥青和石蜡接触的人,与染料和X射线接触但是并没有防护的人员。经常嚼betel nut常常患颊部粘膜癌。
5)男性食管癌发生高于女性也被认为是男性喜欢抽烟和酗酒。
6)胃癌常常发生于慢性胃溃疡部位。大肠而不是小肠常常发生癌症,因为其内容物的毒素和损伤性。90%的肝癌发生于有慢性肝炎的患者。胆囊癌总是伴随胆结石。肺癌总是发生于吸烟者和某些矿工。
7)除了人类,动物也不例外,两个明显的例子是皮肤癌总是好发于马鞍下面的皮肤,而唇癌总是发生于口栓部位。

所有这些观察给人强烈的印象:慢性炎症与癌症存在密切的关系。

各种不同的例子似乎给人一个共同的问题:是不是所有损伤,不论性质怎样,都与癌变有关?

病理学家想用先进的工具,显微镜观察。
显微镜显示,所有的损伤都伴随一种慢性刺激,细胞被刺激增殖来修复被损伤的部位。如果因为不明原因刺激长期存在,细胞增殖就越来越过度和越来越不规则或者异常。这样可以推测,这样的刺激持续长年累月存在,癌症总有一天会产生。

刺激学说之父Virchow坚信不移:不论什么样的损伤,烧伤,晒伤,结果都是炎症,而长期慢性炎症可以导致肿瘤。

(评述:1)这个假说虽然合理,但是很明显只是将不同人员的观察做了一个总结而已。这虽然满足了人类倾向于将表面不同的事务归于一个系统的心里倾向,但是,我们必须明白,这样在事实上并没有真正的进步,虽然这些结果可能使我们满足和快意,而且可能招致偏见。

2)临床经验已经提供了很多有价值的观察用于判断癌症的原因,但是我们不是将一个一个来实验检测而是将他们放到一起成为一个假说。从那时起,很多年后,刺激假说被人们从不同的观点来讨论,但是真正的关于癌症的知识并没有进步。只是等到两位日本学者想到用实验来检测这个假说,通过漫长和耐心的实验,终于证实了这个假说,才使癌症研究获得真的进步。

3)刺激假说获得了极大的成功,特别是在医学界,因为他符合观察到的事实。几乎所有的癌症都首先起源于那些首先发生慢性炎症的部位。但是,在慢性炎症作用下,显微镜可以观察到上皮细胞不断的增殖,持续的刺激会导致细胞持续的增殖甚至过度增殖和形态异常,可以形成突起突出于上皮表面或者象钉子一样深入结缔组织的内部。但是这时这样的组织并不是癌组织,甚至这些组织能够演变为癌的机会也非常小。

4)癌前状态是病理学家常用的名词和诊断,只是用于描述现在的状态并不能决定或者预示将来的变化。病理学家每天诊断病例都有癌前病变,但是他自己知道一些所谓的癌前病变是永远不会癌变的。这可能是刺激假说最大的一个弱点了,如果刺激是癌变的唯一原因,那为什么癌前病变会有如此的不同?

5)不同意见者诘问为什么一些肿瘤没有经过任何明显的癌前刺激却发生了。反驳者认为无法证实这样的问题,因为癌症已经发生,癌前炎症无法被证实是否存在过。

6)刺激假说最大的缺点在于为什么不是所有的刺激都可以导致癌症发生?很多人抽烟,很多人有经年不愈的瘢痕和溃疡但是从没有发生癌症。因此得出结论,刺激是必须的,但是癌症总是一个例外。

7)但是为什么两个看起来类似的病变,一个最终发生癌变,一个没有?
为了试图解释这个问题,学者们将生物学两个公认的原则选择和突变引入解释癌变的理论中。

选择是一个渐变的筛选过程,最终获得适合于新环境的生物。突变是一个突然的过程,并且突变可以遗传给子代。慢性炎症不断刺激细胞增生,许多增生的细胞不断死亡,但是那些活下来能够适应这种环境的细胞不断获得过度的增殖和侵袭能力。最终不再依赖宿主而获得新的生命特征。

但是并不是那些具有新特征的细胞总是能够癌变成功,因为时间漫长和环境的变化,都可能断送演进的进程。因此一个恰当或者合适的环境可能至关重要。这可能是为什么癌变几率很小的一个原因。

关于突变的假说主要是Boveri提出。突变可能主要发生在细胞核。当时他观察到细胞分裂总是将核内容物均等分配给两个子代细胞。而在慢性炎症刺激下,细胞的分裂常常发生错误,常常一分为三甚至一分为四。这样核的分裂可能不均衡。因为有无数的机会细胞进一步获得缺陷,能够活下来的细胞几率很小很小,因此癌变是一个很低概率的事件。

8)选择和突变的只是推测。但是却解释了为什么不是所有的刺激都能产生肿瘤。因此癌变就像中彩票一样稀有。这样刺激假说本质上演化为几率假说。人的一生都可能发生溃疡但是运气决定是否患癌。

这种观点给我们带来困难。反对者继续诘问,即使刺激和机会都是癌变的决定因素,为什么与上皮一样同样受到刺激的结缔组织没有上皮发生肿瘤的机会多?

男女发生肿瘤的机会几乎相等,但是男性发生的肿瘤大部分集中于消化道、呼吸道和泌尿系统,但是女性主要集中于生殖系统。怎样的刺激造成这样大的差别?

这些疑问说明刺激假说并不是癌变的所有解释。

而且,证明刺激假说的实验最后得出这样的结论,似乎不是刺激时间的长短而是刺激的性质,很多方法引起动物的炎症但是几乎从来没有肿瘤发生,而应用苯酚的残渣几乎总可以诱导出肿瘤,其他的因素包括致瘤病毒和X射线等放射性物质。

总之,所有这些只是说明刺激只是癌变的一个因素。

事实留下来,解释在不断变更,然而事实来自那里,不是对假说的挑战?这些不断变更的不正是我们的思维的触须在不断寻找癌症黑暗的秘密?而实验不正是将这些黑暗曝光的手段。

http://www.myresearchspace.cn/bbs/thread-218-1-1.html

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2)胚胎残迹假说(也是现在流行的肿瘤起源于干细胞假说的原始鼻祖)

美人痣很普遍,是先天性的,涉及色素系统的很小的局部发育不良。很少有人担心他们。但是偶尔某个nevus(痣)可能很快增大、溃疡、全身转移,象恶性肿瘤一样。这强烈提示癌症可能起源于先天性的缺陷。或者癌症起源与胚胎发育残留有关。

该假说的观点是,在发育过程中,少数组织停止下来,没有沿着机体大部分细胞发育的方向继续发育成熟,但是在后来某些因素的影响下有开始其发育分化历程,但是走向一个异常的方向。

1829年lobstein和recamier提出癌症起源于成人体内的胚胎残留组织。之后johannes, muller, paget, remak, durante, cohnheim, 和其他学者沿着该想法不对深入研究和搜集证据,使其不断完善。

胚胎假说是临床医生提出来,但是首先从病理医生那里获得坚实的证据。显微镜下,恶性肿瘤细胞分裂活跃,形态幼稚,与胚胎细胞有着非常类似的特征。

为了证实这个想法,首先需要证明存在胚胎残留。

1)垂体是咽发育的一个分支,经常残留具有形成唾液腺的咽的粘膜,甚至在垂体内部也偶尔可以找到这样的残存。

2) 主支气管(branchial arches),常常在鱼的体内发育的比较完善,在哺乳动物的胚胎某一阶段也出现,自然从其短暂的存在中获益,然而,用其残留的部分构建其他临近的器官,胸腺,副胸腺,甲状腺。这些arches的残留可能持续存在于从口腔到胸腔的任何一个部位,这些部位都可能找到胸腺,副胸腺,甲状腺。

3)食道上三分之一的粘膜经常有胃粘膜的存在。

4)脊柱之间或者颅骨底部可能存在胚胎脊索的残留部分,脊索是脊柱的前身。

5)肾上腺可以在肾脏或者卵巢部位残留。

这些任何一种缺陷都可能是癌症的出发点。咽部的垂体残留可能是脑咽瘤(craniopharyngeoma)的前身,支气管残留可能是各种囊肿和支气管源性的肿瘤的前身;食道中胃粘膜可能是发生类似胃癌的癌原因;脊索的残留形成脊索瘤,一种常常发生于颅骨底部和脊柱的恶性肿瘤。

所有这些胚胎发育异常的肿瘤一定来自胚胎残留组织。没有其他的解释可以解释他们的结构,类似的起源难以被否认,同样的有痣,纤维瘤,脂肪瘤以及内脏器官的肿瘤。

同样的证据来自年轻人发生的恶性肿瘤,这些肿瘤在形态上非常类似其胚胎起源的组织。例如脑脊髓和植物神经的神经上皮肿瘤和交感神经瘤,肾脏的腺肉瘤以及一些卵巢和睾丸的肿瘤。

一些肿瘤总是伴随全身不同器官的发育不良,例如,心脏的横纹肌瘤患者同时并存大脑和肾脏的发育异常。小脑血管瘤总是伴随胰腺和肾脏的囊肿。
其他的例子有同时多发性的肿瘤,例如,软骨瘤病,神经纤维瘤病以及Rechlinghausen’s病。软骨瘤病患者全身多发性软骨瘤,常见于手指和脚趾和长骨。有时是恶性的。这些肿瘤可能起源于先天性软骨的异位。Rechlinghausen’s病是一种先天性和遗传性的疾病,特征是整个神经系统都发生了肿瘤,特别是皮肤的神经。

最后,胚胎假说最后将我们引入畸形学的领域。畸胎瘤,常常起源于卵巢,其次是睾丸和胸腔以及脊柱末端。大小不一,有时非常巨大,一般为囊性结构,其内可见毛发和牙齿,以及油脂。显微镜下可以发现很多不同的组织,皮肤、软骨、骨组织、脑组织,甲状腺、肌肉、小肠、肺等等。这些组织可能发育比较好,但是相互排列非常混乱。

畸胎瘤令病理学家想起畸胎现象。受精卵第一次完全分裂并分离会产生两个完整的单卵双胞胎。如果两个细胞部分粘连,结果将依赖粘连的程度以及每个细胞的发育程度而发生:连体双胞胎(Siamese Twins)、连体怪婴 (double monsters)以及一个正常的胚胎携带一个寄生畸胎(Parasitic monster)。

受精卵的开始少数分裂的细胞都可以形成机体所有的组织和器官但是不再具有形成胚胎的能力,因此如果其中某个细胞发育异常就可能产生畸胎瘤。

随着胚胎的不断生长,细胞渐渐发生分化并被限制而只能产生特定组织。任何起源于这些组织的肿瘤将不可避免带有这些组织的印记,虽然他们这是可能具有某些胚胎细胞的特征和再发育的潜能。

当胚胎细胞分化完成成为某种特定的细胞,这是起源于这些胚胎残余组织的肿瘤将只有一种细胞类型。这样各种发育缺陷和可能起源于胚胎残余的肿瘤将成为一个发育缺陷的系列。两极分别是双胞胎和肿瘤,中间是介于二者之间的发育缺陷产物。

虽然胚胎假说给人深刻的印象和无限的想象,但是随着支持者列举资料的增加,问题相应增加,这种辨正关系总是存在,无法否定。

假说要求的胚胎残余和发育缺陷已经找到很多依据,但是只有非常少数发展成为肿瘤。而且即使痣,这个世界上几乎没有人能够幸免的发育缺陷,导致的癌症也只是千分之一或者万分之一。

因此胚胎假说遇到了同样缠绕刺激假说的问题。一个被怀疑为唯一的原因经过周密的检测后发现其作用有限,这时,人类就会用其他借口来增加可能的原因。

为了支持胚胎起源假说。Cohnheim重新捡回刺激假说。他认为单独胚胎假说或刺激假说都不能解释癌症的全部。但是当慢性炎症作用于胚胎残余组织后,将激活其所有潜伏的力量,促进其无限的增殖。这样将两个假说统一起来比较有效地解释了这些诘难和问题。

然而仅仅拼凑假说还是不够。因为没有比推测所有的内在组合并将其付诸于临床观察和实验困难了。虽然经过Cohnheim的改进,胚胎假说仍然给人失望的情绪。将理论完全代替事实会导致混乱的观点。

虽然胚胎细胞与癌细胞具有表面的类似性,但是他们在本质上完全不同。尽管胚胎细胞随着分化渐渐失去增殖活力,但是来自其分化组织的肿瘤依然具有无穷的分裂和增殖活力。

胚胎的生长和分化是受到限制和方向制约的,在成人体内,胚胎残余组织可能失去了这种限制和制约。但是实验并不支持这种推测。不同发育阶段的组织注射或者移植到成人体内几乎总得到一致的结果:一段时间后分化成熟。有时成为囊肿,只有极少数例外发生畸胎瘤,癌变的更是少之又少。

不再有人说胚胎残余组织具有不能发育潜能了。相反,他们一般能分化成具有成熟组织的特征。垂体中发现唾液腺,肾脏发现肾上腺,这些组织其实像正常的唾液腺或肾上腺一样成熟。只是部位差别而已。

最后,认为癌变需要慢性炎症和胚胎残余被实验证明不能成立,因为应用煤焦油涂抹于皮肤的任何部位都可以导致肿瘤的发生。不再有人固执的认为胚胎残余组织如此广泛的存在,而且癌症似乎不需要他们也可以发生。

但是,Ribbert还是做了最后的努力来挽救胚胎假说。他坚持认为胚胎残余组织已经被孤立,因此不再类似其正常组织一样受循环系统和神经系统的影响,而是或多或少的独立并不断向自主即癌症方向演化。根据这样的观念,他试图调和刺激假说和胚胎假说,认为炎症引起组织的错位和陷入孤立类似胚胎残余组织。

但是这种说法也同样遇到了Cohnheim遇到的同样的问题。如果细胞孤立真的是癌症的根源,为什么不论是先天还是后天获得的,只有少数组织最终癌变?体外培养的细胞完全符合Ribbert所说的条件,但是移植回动物体内并不能形成肿瘤。

与刺激假说一样,胚胎假说也遇到了同样的问题,不能解释所有的肿瘤。他们的失误可能在于随意的普遍化和将不重要的作为最重要的来解释。

然而理论所建立的事实不能被忘记,所有的解释也需要认真考虑。

所有的解释如下:
1)  简单的畸形。这包括类似肾上腺异位于肾脏,他们与正常相应的组织在形态方面类似,并没有恶变的倾向。

2)  肿瘤样的畸形。这些具有向肿瘤方向演变的趋势,例如痣或者脊索瘤或者神经纤维瘤。他们的生长或者持续,或者生长一段时间,静息一段时间。切除常常会复发。具有恶变的机会而成为肉瘤。

3)  最终必然演变为癌的畸形。一个典型的例子是被Oberling称为meningoencephlic gliosis的疾病。其最终演变为胶质瘤。

4)  开始就是恶性肿瘤的畸形。例如一些中枢神经系统的肿瘤:神经上皮瘤、神经胶质瘤,横纹肌瘤等。他们一般发生于胎儿或者婴儿期。
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3)癌症的微生物学说:

十九世纪末期Pasteur的发现引起了医学革命。他证实很多人类疾病的根源是某些致病微生物。这给癌症研究似乎也带来了曙光。然而不断有人报道他们发现了引起癌症的微生物,但是这些报道被不断的否定,最终给人类失望和痛苦。

1896年Rappin宣布从肿瘤中分离到一种双球菌。将其注射到动物体内产生了不一致的结果,主要是感染而不是癌症,让人失望,虽然他坚持这种实验40年,但是丝毫没有进展。

1887年Scheurlen描述了一种细菌,认为其可以导致癌症,并为此展开了一场争夺发现优先的争论,但是后来证实那只是一种人类皮肤上的无害微生物。

1901年Doyen发现的Micrococcus neoformans引起一阵轰动,他认为这种微生物是癌症的原因。事实上其只是一种普通的链球菌。

这样不断的有新的微生物被发现,其与癌症的关系与上述例子上演的一幕一样。在癌症组织中分离微生物,如果多次都得到一致的结果,就认为它可能是癌症的原因了。虽然体外培养和动物注射产生感染,但是研究者仍然宣称引起了癌症。一时间杂志上到处报道已经发现了癌症的元凶。严肃的讨论已经不可能。那些怀疑癌症不是微生物感染的学者被指责顽固,一些研究人员甚至以自己未来研究前途做赌注来保护他们自认为伟大的发现。

这样的一幕存在一段时间,甚至有人认为西红柿是癌症的根源。不但宣布而且似乎已经被证实。因为据说将西红柿汁液注射到大鼠的腹腔引起了肉瘤,甚至提供了显微镜照片。由于这种司空见惯的食物不可能是癌症的原因,因此怀疑元凶是一种微生物。经过艰苦的分离发现了一种细菌,但是研究人员已经知道这种细菌在人皮肤很常见。但是仍然有人认为那是证据。甚至有人将其分离纯化后在大鼠体内产生了肉瘤。但是没有人能够重复这样的实验,也没有能够在重复产生西红柿的肉瘤。

这样的事情周期性的表演着,但是没有人怀疑,也不奇怪研究者如此的耐心于这些无聊的研究。几乎所有在当时被发现的微生物都被证实不是癌症的原因。

一些例外是Erwin F Smith发现的植物肿瘤,其确实由微生物感染引起。

但是为什么能够从癌症组织中分离到如此多得微生物?一个原因可能是癌症发生溃疡后成为微生物理想的生存场所。即使没有发生溃疡的肿瘤因为其血管特征,导致进入体内的微生物易于通过肿瘤的血管进入肿瘤组织。因此,微生物感染只是癌症发生之后的事情。这种发现的巧合欺骗了研究人员。

除了细菌,其他的微生物在癌症组织中也被发现。有各种酵母甚至原虫。最后一些研究人员描述包含体并认为他们可能是元凶。关于这方面的文献很快增加,但是最终没有被证实,多数是细胞核或胞浆的变性。

当微生物假说不能被直接证实之后,企图解释微生物间接作用的假说出现苗头。

如果癌症真的可以传染,护士、医生和病理学家每天接触应当被感染,但是并没有这样的事情发生。而且癌症也没有像结核一样可以引起家庭成员发病。癌症引起的死亡分布很均匀,几乎机会均等。

总之,关于微生物与癌症的关系没有足够的证据。

然而1911年,Peyton Rous的发现(可说是20世纪最伟大的发现之一)为后来肿瘤的研究埋下了伏笔。
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癌症研究历史回顾和热点寻踪-2

1911年Peyton Rous第一个发现并证实某种病毒可以引起肿瘤(现在的rous病毒),这个发现后来成为癌基因学说的最原始证据,这个发现似乎表明癌症的表型受少数基因控制。

参考文献:

1:   Vogt PK.  
Peyton Rous: homage and appraisal.
FASEB J. 1996 Nov;10(13):1559-62.
PMID: 8940303 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2:  Rous P.
Landmark article (JAMA 1911;56:198). Transmission of a malignant new growth by means of a cell-free filtrate. By Peyton Rous.
JAMA. 1983 Sep 16;250(11):1445-9.
PMID: 6310170 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

3  Rous P.  
A transmissible avian neoplasm. (Sarcoma of the common fowl) by PeytonRous, M.D., Experimental Medicine for Sept. 1, 1910, vol. 12,pp.696-705.
J Exp Med. 1979 Oct 1;150(4):738-53.
PMID: 229185 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

4) Scientific autographs. IV. Peyton Rous (1879-1970) and his Nobel Prize.
Agents Actions. 1970 Aug;1(4):211-4.
PMID: 4329026 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
1915年,日本人Katsusaburo Yamagiwa 和  Koichi Ichikawa 经过1年实验,终于首次用coal tar 提取物在兔子耳朵上诱导出了肿瘤,第一次证明某些化学物质可以致癌,第一次人工制造了癌症,为后来的癌变机理研究打开了大门。

1) Katsusaburo Yamagiwa (1863-1930).
CA Cancer J Clin. 1977 May-Jun;27(3):172-3.
PMID: 406017 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2: Henschen F.
Yamagiwa's tar cancer and its historical significance. From Percival Pott to Katsusaburo Yamagiwa.
Gann. 1968 Dec;59Devil:447-51.
1941年,著名的肿瘤学家Berenblum I提出了化学诱导癌症的两阶段学说:启动-促进学说。该学说为后来的突变和选择学说建立了基础。

参考文献:

1: Berenblum I, Armuth V.
Two independent aspects of tumor promotion.
Biochim Biophys Acta. 1981 Aug 31;651(1):51-63. Review. .
PMID: 7025906 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2: Berenblum I.
Established principles and unresolved problems in carcinogenesis.
J Natl Cancer Inst. 1978 Apr;60(4):723-6. Review. .
PMID: 344897 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

3: Berenblum I.
A re-evaluation of the concept of cocarciongenesis.
Prog Exp Tumor Res. 1969;11:21-30. Review.
PMID: 4891849 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

4: BERENBLUM I.
A speculative review; the probable nature of promoting action and its significance in the understanding of the mechanism of carcinogenesis.
Cancer Res. 1954 Aug;14(7):471-7.

5 Stockwell S.
Classics in oncology: Isaac Berenblum, M.D.
CA Cancer J Clin. 1981 Jul-Aug;31(4):239-53.
1912年,法国外科医生建立了体外组织培养方法,为体外研究细胞癌变奠定了基础。

参考文献:

1)Carrel A.
Landmark article Nov 11, 1911: Rejuvenation of cultures of tissues. By Alexis Carrel.
JAMA. 1983 Aug 26;250Musical Note:1085.
PMID: 6348324 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2: : Najafi H.
Landmark perspective: Dr. Alexis Carrel and tisue culture.
JAMA. 1983 Aug 26;250Musical Note:1086-9.
PMID: 6352980 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

3: Rapaport FT.
Alexis Carrel, triumph and tragedy.
Transplant Proc. 1987 Aug;19(4 Suppl 5):3-8.
PMID: 3303567 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
1969年,美国NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE的Robert J. Huebner 和 George J. Todaro提出了癌基因学说,虽然后来癌基因学说在此基础上进行了修改。

参考文献

Huebner RJ, Todaro GJ.
Oncogenes of RNA tumor viruses as determinants of cancer.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1969 Nov;64(3):1087-94.
1975年美国伯克力大学Bruce Ames发明了用细菌筛选化学致突变物质方法,简单有效,现在被称为为Ames实验,检测了成千上万种化学物质,发现大部分致突变物质是致癌物,虽然致癌物不一定完全是致突变物质,但是似乎为基因突变学说提供了坚实的依据。然而后来Ames宣称人类的癌症90%以上与现代工业污染没有直接关系。

参考文献:

1) McCann J, Ames BN.
Detection of carcinogens as mutagens in the Salmonella/microsome test: assay of 300 chemicals: discussion.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1976 Mar;73(3):950-4. Review.
PMID: 768988 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2) Ames BN.
Identifying environmental chemicals causing mutations and cancer.
Science. 1979 May 11;204(4393):587-93. Review.
PMID: 373122 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

3)Ames BN, Magaw R, Gold LS.
Ranking possible carcinogenic hazards.
Science. 1987 Apr 17;236(4799):271-80.
PMID: 3563506 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

4)Ames BN.
What are the major carcinogens in the etiology of human cancer? Environmental pollution, natural carcinogens, and the causes of human cancer: six errors.
Important Adv Oncol. 1989;:237-47. Review.

5)Ames BN, Gold LS, Willett WC.
The causes and prevention of cancer.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995 Jun 6;92(12):5258-65. Review.
PMID: 7777494 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
第一个病毒癌基因的发现:Duesberg PH是发现者之一。

1) Duesberg PH, Vogt PK.
Differences between the ribonucleic acids of transforming and nontransforming avian tumor viruses.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1970 Dec;67(4):1673-80.

2) Martin GS, Duesberg PH.
The a subunit in the RNA of transforming avian tumor viruses. I. Occurrence in different virus strains. II. Spontaneous loss resulting in nontransforming variants.
Virology. 1972 Feb;47(2):494-7.

3) Lai MM, Duesberg PH, Horst J, Vogt PK.
Avian tumor virus RNA: a comparison of three sarcoma viruses and their transformation-defective derivatives by oligonucleotide fingerprinting and DNA-RNA hybridization.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1973 Aug;70Musical Note:2266-70.

4)Duesberg PH, Kawai S, Wang LH, Vogt PK, Murphy HM, Hanafusa H.
RNA of replication-defective strains of Rous sarcoma viru
第一个细胞癌基因(原癌基因)的发现,为此美国人Varmus HE, Bishop JM获得1989年诺贝尔奖,方法就是博士后法国人Stehelin D用了半年时间制造基因探针,只是杂交了一下正常鸡的组织,发现了病毒的癌基因竟然也存在于正常动物组织之中,由此解开了癌基因理论的序幕。为此法国人 Stehelin D要求他也应当获得诺贝尔奖,并要打官司。Duesberg 认为应当有资格获得诺贝尔奖的还有Hidesabuo Hanafusa 和 Peter Vogt 以及他自己,还有Robert Weinberg.

1)Stehelin D, Varmus HE, Bishop JM, Vogt PK.
DNA related to the transforming geneMoon of avian sarcoma viruses is present in normal avian DNA.
Nature. 1976 Mar 11;260(5547):170-3.
第一个证明细胞癌基因具有致瘤能力的实验,Robert Weinberg实验室开始的。

1) Shih C, Shilo BZ, Goldfarb MP, Dannenberg A, Weinberg RA.
Passage of phenotypes of chemically transformed cells via transfection of DNA and chromatin.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1979 Nov;76(11):5714-8.
PMID: 230490 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2) Shih C, Padhy LC, Murray M, Weinberg RA. Transforming genes of carcinomas and neuroblastomas introduced into mouse fibroblasts.Nature. 1981 Mar 19;290(5803):261-4.

3) Shilo BZ, Weinberg RA. Unique transforming gene in carcinogen-transformed mouse cells. Nature. 1981 Feb 12;289(5798):607-9. PMID: 6258087 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
20世纪70年代末80年代初,癌基因理论获得的实验支持,主要文献见:

1) Weinberg RA.
Oncogenes of spontaneous and chemically induced tumors.
Adv Cancer Res. 1982;36:149-63. Review. No abstract available.
PMID: 6751037 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2) Land H, Parada LF, Weinberg RA.
Cellular oncogenes and multistep carcinogenesis.
Science. 1983 Nov 18;222(4625):771-8. Review.
PMID: 6356358 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

3) Friend SH, Dryja TP, Weinberg RA.
Oncogenes and tumor-suppressing genes.
N Engl J Med. 1988 Mar 10;318(10):618-22. Review.

4) Weinberg RA.
Oncogenes, antioncogenes, and the molecular bases of multistep carcinogenesis.
Cancer Res. 1989 Jul 15;49(14):3713-21. Review.

5)Bishop JM.
Cellular oncogenes and retroviruses.
Annu Rev Biochem. 1983;52:301-54. Review. .
PMID: 6351725 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

6)Bishop JM.
The molecular genetics of cancer.
Science. 1987 Jan 16;235(4786):305-11. Review.
PMID: 3541204 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

7)Bishop JM.
Molecular themes in oncogenesis.
Cell. 1991 Jan 25;64(2):235-48. Review. .
PMID: 1988146 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

8) Varmus HE.
The molecular genetics of cellular oncogenes.
Annu Rev Genet. 1984;18:553-612. Review. .
PMID: 6397126 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

9)Varmus HE.
Viruses, genes, and cancer. I. The discovery of cellular oncogenes and their role in neoplasia.
Cancer. 1985 May 15;55(10):2324-8. Review.
PMID: 2985231 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
对于癌基因研究如火如荼,第一个发现病毒癌基因的病毒学家,当时美国科学界的天之骄子Peter H Duesberg非但没有加入这个研究行列,而开始了他自己一生的反潮流科学生涯。他不承认存在细胞癌基因,也不相信肿瘤是这些所谓细胞癌基因作用的结果。当然,他还有一个至今被很多科学家看作不能赦免的罪过,即质疑艾滋病是HIV感染的结果。因此,他几乎成为生命科学界的异类,《科学美国人》称他是当今的哥白尼或者唐吉科德。

1)Duesberg PH.
Retroviral transforming genes in normal cells?
Nature. 1983 Jul 21-27;304(5923):219-26. Review.
PMID: 6346107 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2)Duesberg PH.
Activated proto-onc genes: sufficient or necessary for cancer?
Science. 1985 May 10;228(4700):669-77.

3)Duesberg PH.
Cancer genes: rare recombinants instead of activated oncogenes (a review).
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987 Apr;84Musical Note:2117-24. Review.
PMID: 3550807 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

经过紧20年的反潮流研究,几乎被踢出美国NIH的Duesberg于90年代末和他的学生们提出了癌变的非整倍体假说。

1) Li R, Yerganian G, Duesberg P, Kraemer A, Willer A, Rausch C, Hehlmann R.
Aneuploidy correlated 100% with chemical transformation of Chinese hamster cells.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997 Dec 23;94(26):14506-11.
PMID: 9405643 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2)Duesberg P, Rasnick D. Aneuploidy, the somatic mutation that makes cancer a species of its own.
Cell Motil Cytoskeleton. 2000 Oct;47(2):81-107. Review.
PMID: 11013390 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

3)Duesberg P, Li R, Fabarius A, Hehlmann R.
Aneuploidy and cancer: from correlation to causation.
Contrib Microbiol. 2006;13:16-44. Review.
PMID: 16627957 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

4): Duesberg P, Li R, Fabarius A, Hehlmann R.
The chromosomal basis of cancer.
Cell Oncol. 2005;27(5-6):293-318. Review.
PMID: 16373963 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
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癌症研究历史回顾和热点寻踪- 3

癌基因理论研究已经30年,最新的关于癌基因理论方面的认识。

1)Hanahan D, Weinberg RA.
The hallmarks of cancer.
Cell. 2000 Jan 7;100(1):57-70. Review. No abstract available.
PMID: 10647931 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2)Hahn WC, Weinberg RA.
Modelling the molecular circuitry of cancer.
Nat Rev Cancer. 2002 May;2(5):331-41. Review.
PMID: 12044009 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

3)Hahn WC, Weinberg RA.
Rules for making human tumor cells.
N Engl J Med. 2002 Nov 14;347(20):1593-603. Review.
PMID: 12432047 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

4)Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW.
Cancer genes and the pathways they control.
Nat Med. 2004 Aug;10Musical Note:789-99. Review.
PMID: 15286780 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
并不是只有Duesberg 一个人反对基因突变学说,还有不同的派别。来自Sonnenschein C和Soto AM.的看法:

1)Sonnenschein C, Soto AM.
Somatic mutation theory of carcinogenesis: why it should be dropped and replaced.
Mol Carcinog. 2000 Dec;29(4):205-11.
PMID: 11170258 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2)Soto AM, Sonnenschein C.
The somatic mutation theory of cancer: growing problems with the paradigm?
Bioessays. 2004 Oct;26(10):1097-107. Review.
PMID: 15382143 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

3)Soto AM, Sonnenschein C.
Emergentism as a default: cancer as a problem of tissue organization.
J Biosci. 2005 Feb;30(1):103-18. Review.
PMID: 15824446 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
并不是只有Duesberg 一个人反对基因突变学说,还有不同的派别。来自HARRY Rubin的看法:

1)Rubin H.
Is somatic mutation the major mechanism of malignant transformation?
J Natl Cancer Inst. 1980 May;64(5):995-1000.
PMID: 6929024 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2)Rubin H.
Mutations and oncogenes--cause or effect.
Nature. 1984 Jun 7-13;309(5968):518.
PMID: 6728009 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

3)Rubin H.
Cancer as a dynamic developmental disorder.
Cancer Res. 1985 Jul;45(7):2935-42. Review.
PMID: 3891078 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

4)Farber E, Rubin H.
Cellular adaptation in the origin and development of cancer.
Cancer Res. 1991 Jun 1;51(11):2751-61. Review.
PMID: 2032214 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

5)Rubin H.
'Spontaneous' transformation as aberrant epigenesis.
Differentiation. 1993 Jun;53(2):123-37.
PMID: 8359592 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

6)Rubin H.
What keeps cells in tissues behaving normally in the face of myriad mutations?
Bioessays. 2006 May;28(5):515-24. Review.
PMID: 16615084 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
并不是只有Duesberg 一个人反对基因突变学说,还有不同的派别。来自Richmond T Prehn 的看法:

1) Prehn RT.
Cancers beget mutations versus mutations beget cancers.
Cancer Res. 1994 Oct 15;54(20):5296-300.
PMID: 7923156 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2) Prehn RT.
On the nature of cancer and why anticancer vaccines don't work.
Cancer Cell Int. 2005 Aug 1;5(1):25.
PMID: 16060965 [PubMed]

3) Prehn RT.
The role of mutation in the new cancer paradigm.
Cancer Cell Int. 2005 Apr 26;5(1):9.
PMID: 15854226 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
并不是只有Duesberg 一个人反对基因突变学说,还有不同的派别。来自Harris H. 的看法:

1) Harris H.
A long view of fashions in cancer research.
Bioessays. 2005 Aug;27Musical Note:833-8.
PMID: 16015588 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2) Harris H.
Tumour suppression: putting on the brakes.
Nature. 2004 Jan 15;427(6971):201.
PMID: 14724616 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

3) Harris H.
The role of differentiation in the suppression of malignancy.
J Cell Sci. 1990 Sep;97 ( Pt 1):5-10. Review.
PMID: 2258391 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
关于细胞永生化问题,20世纪60年代以前,人们一向认为细胞在体外可以无限传代培养,而Hayflick打破了这个神话。

1) HAYFLICK L.
THE LIMITED IN VITRO LIFETIME OF HUMAN DIPLOID CELL STRAINS.
Exp Cell Res. 1965 Mar;37:614-36. .
PMID: 14315085 [PubMed - OLDMEDLINE for Pre1966]

2)Hayflick L.
Mortality and immortality at the cellular level. A review.
Biochemistry (Mosc). 1997 Nov;62(11):1180-90. Review.
PMID: 9467840 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
基因突变学说中著名的二次打击学说,是Knudson AG于1971年在研究视网膜母细胞瘤的流行病学和家系遗传规律过程中提出的。

参考文献:

1)Knudson AG Jr.
Mutation and cancer: statistical study of retinoblastoma.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1971 Apr;68(4):820-3.
PMID: 5279523 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2)Knudson AG.
Two genetic hits (more or less) to cancer.
Nat Rev Cancer. 2001 Nov;1(2):157-62. Review.
PMID: 11905807 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
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发贴心情
癌症研究历史回顾和热点寻踪- 4

肿瘤免疫的概念起源于本世纪初。1909年Ehrlich首先提出,免疫系统不仅负责防御微生物侵犯,而且能从肌体内清除改变了的宿主成分。此后人们认识到癌细胞是改变了的宿主成分。本世纪中期,Foley证实,纯系小鼠诱发的肿瘤能在同系小鼠之间移植,如在肿瘤的生长过程中将移植瘤完全切除,小鼠会对再次接种的肿瘤产生抵抗能力,再次接种的肿瘤或者不再生长,或者长到一定的大小便自行消退。这种抗性有专一性,因为它对再次接种来源于同系动物的另一肿瘤没有抵抗能力。实验说明,肿瘤确能被宿主视为"非己"而产生特异的免疫排斥反应。这使人们相信机体存在着抗肿瘤免疫机制。六十年代经Thomas、 Burnet和Good等人将该观点系统化,提出了免疫监视学说。免疫监视学说的中心思想是:免疫系统具有一个十分完备的监视功能,能精确地分? quot;自己"和"非己"的成分;它不仅能清除外界侵入的各种微生物,排斥同种异体移植物,而且还能消灭机体内突变的细胞,防止肿瘤的生长,保护机体的健康。每当免疫监视功能由于这种或那种原因被削弱时,便为肿瘤的发生提供了有利条件;如果机体不具备免疫监视功能,人类的肿瘤发病率会大大提高。临床也得到了一些支持的证据。但是目前仍然存在争论。

1)Burnet FM.
The concept of immunological surveillance.
Prog Exp Tumor Res. 1970;13:1-27. Review. .
PMID: 4921480 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2)Burnet FM. Related Articles, Links
Immunological surveillance in neoplasia.
Transplant Rev. 1971;7:3-25.
PMID: 5146537 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

目前关于免疫监视学说的进展和改进

1)Klein G, Klein E.
Surveillance against tumors--is it mainly immunological?
Immunol Lett. 2005 Aug 15;100(1):29-33. Review.
PMID: 16129497 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2)Zitvogel L, Tesniere A, Kroemer G.
Cancer despite immunosurveillance: immunoselection and immunosubversion.
Nat Rev Immunol. 2006 Oct;6(10):715-27. Epub 2006 Sep 15. Review.
PMID: 16977338 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

3)Smyth MJ, Dunn GP, Schreiber RD.
Cancer immunosurveillance and immunoediting: the roles of immunity in suppressing tumor development and shaping tumor immunogenicity.
Adv Immunol. 2006;90:1-50.
PMID: 16730260 [PubMed - in process]

4)Ichim CV.
Revisiting immunosurveillance and immunostimulation: Implications for cancer immunotherapy.
J Transl Med. 2005 Feb 8;3(1):8.
PMID: 15698481 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]

5)Dunn GP, Old LJ, Schreiber RD.
The immunobiology of cancer immunosurveillance and immunoediting.
Immunity. 2004 Aug;21(2):137-48. Review.
PMID: 15308095 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

6) Qin Z, Blankenstein T.
A cancer immunosurveillance controversy.
Nat Immunol. 2004 Jan;5(1):3-4; author reply 4-5. No abstract available.
PMID: 14699396 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

7) Boon T, van Baren N.
Immunosurveillance against cancer and immunotherapy--synergy or antagonism?
N Engl J Med. 2003 Jan 16;348(3):252-4.
PMID: 12529468 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

8: Ochsenbein AF.
Principles of tumor immunosurveillance and implications for immunotherapy.
Cancer Gene Ther. 2002 Dec;9(12):1043-55. Review.
PMID: 12522443 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

9: Dunn GP, Bruce AT, Ikeda H, Old LJ, Schreiber RD.
Cancer immunoediting: from immunosurveillance to tumor escape.
Nat Immunol. 2002 Nov;3(11):991-8. Review.
PMID: 12407406 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

10)Lanier LL.
A renaissance for the tumor immunosurveillance hypothesis.
Nat Med. 2001 Nov;7(11):1178-80.
PMID: 11689875 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
著名的肿瘤免疫学奠基人之一Richmond T. Prehn首先发现肿瘤特异性抗原,在1970年左右提出肿瘤免疫刺激学说,与诺贝尔奖获得者Bernet的免疫监视学说相反。

1)Prehn RT, Lappe MA.
An immunostimulation theory of tumor development.
Transplant Rev. 1971;7:26-54. Review.
PMID: 4947774 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
2) Prehn RT.
Immunosurveillance, regeneration and oncogenesis.
Prog Exp Tumor Res. 1971;14:1-24. Review. .
PMID: 4944395 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
3)Prehn RT, Prehn LM.
The autoimmune nature of cancer.
Cancer Res. 1987 Feb 15;47(4):927-32. Review.
PMID: 3542202 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
4)Prehn RT, Prehn LM.
Immunostimulation of cancer versus immunosurveillance.
Medicina (B Aires). 1996;56 Suppl 1:65-73. Review.
PMID: 9224976 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
5) Prehn RT.
Stimulatory effects of immune reactions upon the growths of untransplanted tumors.
Cancer Res. 1994 Feb 15;54(4):908-14. Review.
PMID: 8313380 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
6)Prehn RT.
An adaptive immune reaction may be necessary for cancer development.
Theor Biol Med Model. 2006 Feb 3;3(1):6 [Epub ahead of print]
PMID: 16457723 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
癌症研究的电子理论,即亚分子水平的癌症理论,由诺贝尔奖获得者Szent-Gyorgyi提出,但是癌症研究主流并不支持这种理论,可能只有天才人物才能够挖掘该理论方向的意义。
Electronic Biology and Cancer: a New Theory of Cancer

1) SZENT-GYORGYI A, HEGYELI A, McLAUGHLIN JA.
Cancer therapy: a possible new approach.
Science. 1963 Jun 28;140:1391-2. No abstract available.
PMID: 13979937 [PubMed - OLDMEDLINE for Pre1966]

2)Szent-Gyorgyi A.
Bioelectronics. Intermolecular electron transfer may play a major role in biological regulation, defense, and cancer.
Science. 1968 Sep 6;161(845):988-90. .
PMID: 4299558 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

3)Szent-Gyorgyi A.
Bioelectronics and cancer.
J Bioenerg. 1973;4Devil:533-62.
PMID: 4771418 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

4)Szent-Gyorgyi A.
The living state and cancer.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1977 Jul;74(7):2844-7.
PMID: 268635 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
http://www.ionizers.org/Otto-Warburg.html

著名化学家1931年诺贝尔奖获得者Otto Warburg的癌症理论:无氧代谢理论

参考文献:

1) WARBURG O.
On the origin of cancer cells.
Science. 1956 Feb 24;123(3191):309-14. .
PMID: 13298683 [PubMed - OLDMEDLINE for Pre1966]

2) WARBURG O.
On respiratory impairment in cancer cells.
Science. 1956 Aug 10;124(3215):269-70.
PMID: 13351639 [PubMed - OLDMEDLINE for Pre1966]

3) Arch Geschwulstforsch. 1983;53(1):1-8.
Warburg's cancer theory revisited: a fundamentally new approach.
Anghileri LJ.

Warburg's cancer theory was based on cell injury at the bioenergetic system level. Posteriorly done research work on cell membrane biology, and on the role of calcium in the multifunctional capabilities of the cell (respiration, protein metabolism, membrane physiology, mitosis, etc.) has been used to corroborate another years ago stated hypothesis on carcinogenesis. The consequently new theory states that a cell injury at the cell membrane level is the event triggering a massive influx of calcium ions, and as the result of which some cells die by toxic death (necrosis) while, in order to survive others must adapt themselves to a changed intracellular ionic environment. This adaptation process leads to a more primitive way of life (neoplasia) where the cells appear to be independent of biological signals, specially those calcium-dependent. The increased intracellular calcium concentration seems also to be the cause of increased cell glycolysis (Warburg's observation), and of the preneoplastic hyperplasia by uncontrolled translational mRNA activity.

4) Schulz TJ, Thierbach R, Voigt A, Drewes G, Mietzner B, Steinberg P, Pfeiffer AF, Ristow M.
Induction of oxidative metabolism by mitochondrial frataxin inhibits cancer growth: Otto Warburg revisited.
J Biol Chem. 2006 Jan 13;281(2):977-81. Epub 2005 Nov 1.
PMID: 16263703 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
第一个发现费城染色体的Nowell PC.及其癌症细胞克隆进化理论。

1)Nowell PC.
The clonal evolution of tumor cell populations.
Science. 1976 Oct 1;194(4260):23-8.
PMID: 959840 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

2)Nowell PC.
Mechanisms of tumor progression.
Cancer Res. 1986 May;46(5):2203-7. Review.
PMID: 3516380 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
按照基因突变理论,癌症的启动是突变的结果,之后不断选择,最后导致肿瘤发生,然而,癌症的启动也有表遗传改变的解释。

1. Jaffe LF. Epigenetic theories of cancer initiation [J]. Adv Cancer Res. 2003, 90:209-30.

2. Prehn RT. Cancers beget mutations versus mutations beget cancers [J]. Cancer Res. 1994, 54(20):5296-300.
肿瘤干细胞假说的历史回顾:

约150 年前,病理学家Virchow等认为肿瘤来源于发育过程中某些潜伏的胚胎残余组织,这种推测基于对胚胎发育和某些肿瘤例如畸胎瘤的相似性的观察。1961 年Bruce等发现只有1-4%的鼠类淋巴瘤细胞可以在被移植动物的脾脏形成克隆(clones),1973年McCulloch等发现只有不到1%的髓白血病细胞可以在体外形成克隆。1977年Hamburger等发现1000-5000个实体瘤细胞中仅有1个细胞可以在软琼脂中形成细胞克隆。随着这些研究结果不断出现,上世纪70年代Potter和Pierce等分别提出肿瘤是干细胞分化成熟被抑制的结果。直到1997年Dick实验室分离到急性髓白血病干细胞,肿瘤干细胞(tumor stem cells)的研究才逐渐升温,至今研究人员已经分别从慢性髓白血病、胶质瘤和乳腺癌中分离到具有特定免疫表型的肿瘤干细胞。

1. Messner HA, McCulloch EA.Interacting cell populations affecting granulopoietic colony formation by normal and leukemic human marrow cells [J].Blood. 1973, 42(5):701-10.
2. Hamburger AW, Salmon SE. Primary bioassay of human tumor stem cells [J].Science. 1977, 197(4302):461-3.
3. Potter VR.Phenotypic diversity in experimental hepatomas: the concept of partially blocked ontogeny. The 10th Walter Hubert Lecture [J].Br J Cancer. 1978, 38(1):1-23.
4. Pierce GB.Relationship between differentiation and carcinogenesis [J]. J Toxicol Environ Health. 1977, 2:1335-42.
5. Bonnet D, Dick JE.Human acute myeloid leukemia is organized as a hierarchy that originates from a primitive hematopoietic cell [J].Nat Med. 1997, 3(7):730-7.

癌症干细胞最新研究进展

1. Reya T, Morrison SJ, Clarke MF, et.al. Stem cells, cancer, and cancer stem cells [J]. Nature. 2001, 414(6859):105-11.

2. Dalerba P, Cho RW, Clarke MF. Cancer Stem Cells: Models and Concepts.
Annu Rev Med. 2006 Sep 26;

3.Clarke MF, Dick JE, Dirks PB, Eaves CJ, Jamieson CH, Jones DL, Visvader J, Weissman IL, Wahl GM. Cancer Stem Cells--Perspectives on Current Status and Future Directions: AACR Workshop on Cancer Stem Cells. Cancer Res. 2006 Oct 1;66(19):9339-44. Epub 2006 Sep 21.
癌症的表型遗传修饰改变假说历史回顾

早期研究人员发现化学诱癌实验产生的肿瘤,如果停止使用致癌剂和/或促癌剂,相当一部分肿瘤会通过重新分化而自发消失。上世纪40年代年Furth发现卵巢细胞移植到脾脏可以自发癌变。60年代King和McKinnell等将青蛙的肾癌细胞核转移到正常卵细胞中,发现这种卵细胞依然可以发育成正常的蝌蚪。 70年代,Mintz和Illmensee等发现将畸胎瘤细胞移植至正常同系动物的胚泡内,结果产生不长肿瘤的嵌合型小鼠。Howell等发现肿瘤细胞和正常细胞的融合产生的细胞失去恶性表型。基于上述发现,1979年Holliday首先提出表型遗传修饰改变假说。80年代Sachs等将白血病细胞向同系动物的早期胚胎移植,发现白血病细胞可参与正常动物血液系统的发育,动物发育成熟后各系血液细胞均可发现白血病细胞的基因标记。90年代 McCullough等将肝癌细胞向同系成年动物肝组织移植,发现癌细胞可参与正常肝脏细胞的更新;最近研究发现致癌剂作用于间质细胞却可以产生实质细胞肿瘤。

1. King TJ, DiBerardino MA.Transplantation of nuclei from the frog renal adenocarcinoma. I. Development of tumor nuclear-transplant embryos [J]. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1965, 126(1):115-26.
2. McKinnell RG, Deggins BA, Labat DD.Transplantation of pluripotential nuclei from triploid frog tumors [J].Science. 1969, 165(891):394-6.
3. Mintz B, Illmensee K.Normal genetically mosaic mice produced from malignant teratocarcinoma cells [J].Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1975, 72(9):3585-9.
4. Illmensee K, Mintz B.Totipotency and normal differentiation of single teratocarcinoma cells cloned by injection into blastocysts [J]. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1976, 73(2):549-53.
5. Howell AN, Sager R.Tumorigenicity and its suppression in cybrids of mouse and Chinese hamster cell lines [J]. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1978, 75(5):2358-62.
6. Holliday R.A new theory of carcinogenesis. Br J Cancer. 1979, 40(4):513-22.
7. Gootwine E, Webb CG, Sachs L.Participation of myeloid leukaemic cells injected into embryos in haematopoietic differentiation in adult mice [J]. Nature. 1982, 299(5878):63-5.
8. McCullough KD, Coleman WB, Ricketts SL, et.al. Plasticity of the neoplastic phenotype in vivo is regulated by epigenetic factors [J].Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998, 95(26):15333-8.
9. Maffini MV, Soto AM, Calabro JM, et.al. The stroma as a crucial target in rat mammary gland carcinogenesis [J].J Cell Sci. 2004, 117(Pt 8):1495-502.

相关评论:

1 Trosko JE. 'A failed paradigm: carcinogenesis is more than mutagenesis'.
Mutagenesis. 1988 Jul;3(4):363-6.

2 Capp JP. Elements for an integrated approach to carcinogenesis.
Bioessays. 2006 Feb;28(2):228.

3 Fahmy OG, Fahmy MJ. Gene elimination in carcinogenesis: reinterpretation of the somatic mutation theory. Cancer Res. 1970 Jan;30(1):195-205.

4) Cuthill S. Cellular epigenetics and the origin of cancer.
Bioessays. 1994 Jun;16Devil:393-4. Review.

最新进展:

1) Lin H, Yamada Y, Nguyen S, Linhart H, Jackson-Grusby L, Meissner A, Meletis K, Lo G, Jaenisch R. Suppression of intestinal neoplasia by deletion of Dnmt3b.
Mol Cell Biol. 2006 Apr;26Musical Note:2976-83.

2: Holm TM, Jackson-Grusby L, Brambrink T, Yamada Y, Rideout WM 3rd, Jaenisch R.
Global loss of imprinting leads to widespread tumorigenesis in adult mice.
Cancer Cell. 2005 Oct;8(4):275-85. Erratum in: Cancer Cell. 2005 Nov;8(5):433. Cancer Cell. 2006 Jan;9(1):69.
正常组织细胞在体外培养与细菌不同,最大的不同就是只能培养有限的时间,而大部分癌症细胞可以无限培养。因此关于细胞衰老和永生化的理论层出不穷。

1) Kirkwood TB, Holliday R. Commitment to senescence: a model for the finite and infinite growth of diploid and transformed human fibroblasts in culture.J Theor Biol. 1975 Sep;53(2):481-96.

2) Holliday R. Growth and death of diploid and transformed human fibroblasts.
Fed Proc. 1975 Jan;34(1):51-5. Review.

3)Holliday R, Huschtscha LI, Tarrant GM, Kirkwood TB. Testing the commitment theory of cellular aging. Science. 1977 Oct 28;198(4315):366-72.

4) Harley CB, Goldstein S. Retesting the commitment theory of cellular aging.
Science. 1980 Jan 11;207(4427):191-3.

5). Hayflick L.The illusion of cell immortality [J]. Br J Cancer. 2000, 83(7):841-6.

6). Merok JR, Sherley JL.Breaching the Kinetic Barrier to In Vitro Somatic Stem Cell Propagation [J].J Biomed Biotechnol. 2001;1(1):25-27.

7). Martin GM, Sprague CA, Norwood TH, et.al.Clonal selection, attenuation and differentiation in an in vitro model of hyperplasia [J]. Am J Pathol. 1974, 74(1):137-54.
8). Bell E, Marek LF, Levinstone DS, et.al.Loss of division potential in vitro: aging or differentiation [J]? Science. 1978, 202(4373):1158-63.

10). Wright WE, Shay JW. Historical claims and current interpretations of replicative aging [J]. Nat Biotechnol. 2002, 20(7):682-8.
11). Shay JW, Wright WE. Hayflick, his limit, and cellular ageing [J]. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2000, 1(1):72-6.
人类在癌症研究方面经历了一个又一个浪潮,20世纪20-50年代,是化学致癌研究最迅猛的时代,60-70年代的掀起寻求癌症病毒狂潮,70-80年代是癌基因疯狂时代,80年代末进入迷恋抑癌基因时代,90年代细胞周期、信号转导和细胞凋亡理论在癌症研究中的广泛运用,然而,浪潮很快过去了,因为这些都被证明与癌症有关,但不是癌症的本质。

21 世纪来了,肿瘤干细胞因为干细胞研究的进展而获得了最佳契机,而且研究人员似乎都认识到肿瘤干细胞才是癌症的根源。于是,肿瘤干细胞开始进入疯狂时代。肿瘤干细胞的根本问题是自我更新控制问题,也就是生命本质问题,在分子生物学方面,干细胞不对称分裂方面,染色体非随机分配方面的进展将会为肿瘤干细胞的研究注入生命力。

早在20世纪90年代初,Prehn就认识到肿瘤的本质在于干细胞的分裂方式问题,现在肿瘤研究已经为此掀开了序幕。但愿这次不再是浪潮。

1)Prehn RT. Many growth factors may not be growth factors.Cancer Res. 1992 Feb 1;52(3):501-7. Review.

2) Morrison SJ, Kimble J. Asymmetric and symmetric stem-cell divisions in development and cancer.Nature. 2006 Jun 29;441(7097):1068-74.

3)Wodarz A, Gonzalez C. Connecting cancer to the asymmetric division of stem cells. Cell. 2006 Mar 24;124Devil:1121-3.

4)Radtke F, Clevers H. Self-renewal and cancer of the gut: two sides of a coin.
Science. 2005 Mar 25;307(5717):1904-9.

5)Beachy PA, Karhadkar SS, Berman DM. Tissue repair and stem cell renewal in carcinogenesis.Nature. 2004 Nov 18;432(7015):324-31.
论怎样的致癌剂,不论化学致癌剂还是致癌病毒,还是物理射线,离开细胞的增殖,都不可能导致肿瘤发生,而且这些致癌因素似乎都首先引起细胞的过增殖而促进肿瘤的发生,这个过程明显隐藏了自然选择的突变与选择问题。

1. Cairns J.Somatic stem cells and the kinetics of mutagenesis and carcinogenesis [J].Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002, 99(16):10567-70.
2. Cohen SM, Ellwein LB. Genetic errors, cell proliferation, and carcinogenesis [J]. Cancer Res. 1991, 51(24): 6493-505.
3. Preston-Martin S, Pike MC, Ross RK, et.al.Increased cell division as a cause of human cancer [J]. Cancer Res. 1990, 50(23):7415-21.
4. Cohen SM, Ellwein LB. Cell proliferation in carcinogenesis [J].Science. 1990, 249(4972):1007-11.
5. Cohen SM.Role of cell proliferation in regenerative and neoplastic disease [J]. Toxicol Lett. 1995, 82-83:15-21.
6. Ames BN, Gold LS. Re: E. Farber, Cell proliferation as a major risk factor for cancer: a concept of doubtful validity [J]. Cancer Res., 55: 3759-3762, 1995. Cancer Res. 1996, 56(18):4267-9; author reply 4272-4.
我们一向认为细胞有丝分裂时染色体发生随机分配,然而这不是事实,而且事实表明染色体的非随机分配可能与细胞的分化具有密切关系,因此与癌变关系密切。

1. Cairns J. Mutation selection and the natural history of cancer [J]. Nature.1975,255(5505): 197-200.
2. Potten CS, Owen G, Booth D. Intestinal stem cells protect their genome by selective segregation of template DNA strands [J]. J Cell Sci. 2002,115(Pt 11):2381-2388.
3. Merok JR, Lansita JA, Tunstead JR, et.al.Cosegregation of chromosomes containing immortal DNA strands in cells that cycle with asymmetric stem cell kinetics [J]. Cancer Res. 2002,62(23):6791-6795
4. Smith GH Label-retaining epithelial cells in mouse mammary gland divide asymmetrically and retain their template DNA strands [J]. Development. 2005, 132(4):681-7.
5. Rambhatla L, Ram-Mohan S, Cheng JJ, et.al..Immortal DNA strand cosegregation requires p53/IMPDH-dependent asymmetric self-renewal associated with adult stem cells [J].Cancer Res. 2005, 65:3155-61.

6) John Cairns .Cancer and the Immortal Strand Hypothesis.Genetics 2006 174: 1069-1072. doi:10.1534/genetics.104.66886

7)Bell CD. Is mitotic chromatid segregation random? Histol Histopathol. 2005 Oct;20(4):1313-20. Review.

8) Bell CD. Symmetry applied to nuclear microanatomy: a review of gene function and cell differentiation. Histol Histopathol. 2004 Jan;19(1):291-8. Review.

9)Patkin EL. Epigenetic mechanisms for primary differentiation in mammalian embryos. Int Rev Cytol. 2002;216:81-129. Review.
癌症的表型逆转问题一向是癌症研究人员最关心的问题。有那些方式可以逆转癌症表型呢?

外周环境可以逆转部分癌症细胞的表型
1. Mintz B, Illmensee K.Normal genetically mosaic mice produced from malignant teratocarcinoma cells [J].Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1975, 72(9):3585-9.
2. Illmensee K, Mintz B.Totipotency and normal differentiation of single teratocarcinoma cells cloned by injection into blastocysts [J]. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1976, 73(2):549-53.
3 Rosen P. On the reversibility of tumor cells.Med Hypotheses. 1981 May;7(5):615-20.
4) Kaiser HE. Biological viewpoints of neoplastic regression.In Vivo. 1994 Jan-Feb;8(1):155-65. Review.

5) Blelloch RH, Hochedlinger K, Yamada Y, Brennan C, Kim M, Mintz B, Chin L, Jaenisch R. Nuclear cloning of embryonal carcinoma cells.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Sep 28;101(39):13985-90. Epub 2004 Aug 11. Erratum in: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Sep 28;101(39):14305.

6) Pierce GB, Arechaga J, Wells RS. Embryonic control of cancer.
Prog Clin Biol Res. 1986;226:67-77. Review.

7) Barrett JC. A National Institutes of Health Workshop Report. Cellular and molecular mechanisms for suppression and reversion of tumorigenicity. A Chemical Pathology Study Section workshop.Cancer Res. 1987 May 1;47(9):2514-20.

8): Nature. 1984 Jun 7-13;309(5968):552-6.

Inability of Rous sarcoma virus to cause sarcomas in the avian embryo.

Dolberg DS, Bissell MJ.

The injection of Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) into the wing web of newly hatched chicks causes a rapidly growing sarcomatous tumour which is palpable within 1 week of inoculation; and cultures of fibroblasts derived from chick embryos (CEF) and infected with RSV become rapidly transformed. Genetic studies have determined that expression of a single viral gene, designated v-src, is necessary for neoplastic transformation. This gene codes for a 60,000-molecular weight phosphoprotein termed pp60SPC , which possesses a protein kinase activity that phosphorylates polypeptides on tyrosine residues and is constitutively expressed in infected CEF cells. It has been suggested that transformation, and possibly tumorigenesis, may result solely from the consequences of this increase in tyrosine phosphorylations. The pathogenicity of RSV in chick embryos in ovo is less clear. Murphy and Rous suggested that RSV may have caused tumours in "various tissues" of "some embryos", but the subsequent studies of Milford and Duran - Reynals , as well as several other laboratories, failed to find any evidence of intraembryonic tumours in RSV-infected early embryos. The findings of Duran - Reynals , if correct, cannot be explained easily in view of our present understanding of RSV tumorigenicity. Thus, we have re-examined the interaction of RSV with the avian embryo and confirm here that RSV is nontumorigenic and non-teratogenic when microinjected into day 4 chicken embryos. In addition, we found that (1) the virus not only replicates in the embryo, but it also expresses an active src-specific protein kinase and (2) once the cells from the infected limbs are disrupted and placed in culture, they are capable of expressing the transformed phenotype after a 24-h delay.

阻断癌基因可以部分逆转癌症表型。

1) Arvanitis C, Felsher DW. Conditional transgenic models define how MYC initiates and maintains tumorigenesis. Semin Cancer Biol. 2006 Aug;16(4):313-7. Epub 2006 Jul 21. Review.

2)Shachaf CM, Felsher DW. Rehabilitation of cancer through oncogene inactivation.
Trends Mol Med. 2005 Jul;11(7):316-21. Review.

3)Felsher DW. Reversibility of oncogene-induced cancer.
Curr Opin Genet Dev. 2004 Feb;14(1):37-42.

细胞融合可以逆转癌细胞表型:

1)Harris H. The analysis of malignancy by cell fusion: the position in 1988.
Cancer Res. 1988 Jun 15;48(12):3302-6.

2)Handmaker SD. Hybridization of eukaryotic cells.
Annu Rev Microbiol. 1973;27:189-204. Review.

器官再生能力与癌变概率相反,与逆转癌症概率成正比:

1) Prehn RT. Regeneration versus neoplastic growth. Carcinogenesis. 1997 Aug;18Musical Note:1439-44.

2)Prehn RT. Immunosurveillance, regeneration and oncogenesis.Prog Exp Tumor Res. 1971;14:1-24. Review.
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多细胞生物一个特点是含有来自父本和母本的各一半的基因组,这两种不同来源的遗传信息除了DNA序列有一些差异外,它们的表遗传也很不一样,虽然精子进入卵细胞之后去甲基化等表遗传改变,之后又重新甲基化等表遗传改变,但是该过程与卵细胞的表遗传改变很不一样,这种表遗传的差别是体细胞克隆难以解决的问题,也是动物克隆成功率很低的一个重要原因。The conflict theory of genomic imprinting理论用来解释该现象,现在Stewart CL实验研究表明父本和母本的遗传信息在癌变过程中确实起不同的作用,该实验间接支持The conflict theory of genomic imprinting,最近去年获得美国科学院院士称号的 Jaenisch R发表文章:广泛的基因印记丢失可导致小鼠发生多种肿瘤,该实验与下面该实验似乎相通。

Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 Nov 11;100(23):13344-9. Epub 2003 Oct 27.

Paternal and maternal genomes confer opposite effects on proliferation, cell-cycle length, senescence, and tumor formation.

Hernandez L, Kozlov S, Piras G, Stewart CL.

Cancer and Developmental Biology Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21702, USA.

Loss of imprinting is the silencing of active imprinted genes or the activation of silent imprinted genes, and it is one of the most common epigenetic changes associated with the development of a wide variety of tumors. Here, we have analyzed the effects that global imprinted gene expression has on cell proliferation and transformation. Primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), whose entire genome is either exclusively paternal (androgenetic) or maternal (parthenogenetic), exhibit dramatically contrasting patterns of growth. In comparison with biparental MEFs, andro-genetic proliferation is characterized by a shorter cell cycle, increased saturation density, spontaneous transformation, and formation of tumors at low passage number. Parthenogenetic MEFs reach a lower saturation density, senesce, and die. The maternally expressed imprinted genes p57kip2 and M6P/Igf2r retard proliferation and reduce the long-term growth of MEFs. In contrast, the paternally expressed growth factor Igf2 is essential for the long-term proliferation of all genotypes. Increased Igf2 expression in primary MEFs not only stimulates proliferation, but also results in their rapid conversion to malignancy with tumor formation of short latency. Our results reveal that paternally expressed imprinted genes, in the absence of maternal imprinted genes, predispose fibroblasts to rapid transformation. A potent factor in their transformation is IGF2, which on increased expression results in the rapid conversion of primary cells to malignancy. These results reveal a route by which malignant choriocarcinoma may arise from molar pregnancies. They also suggest that the derivation of stem cells from parthenogenetic embryos, for the purposes of therapeutic cloning, may be ineffective.
非整倍体与癌变关系目前是癌症研究的一个争论焦点,看看目前流行的4个观点:

Nguyen HG, Ravid K.
Tetraploidy/aneuploidy and stem cells in cancer promotion: The role of chromosome passenger proteins.
J Cell Physiol. 2006 Jul;208(1):12-22. Review.


Figure1. Theories on involvement of aneuploidy in cancer promotion. [Colorfigure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at www.interscience.wiley.com.]

如果科学的本质只是寻求物质之间的一种关系,而医学或者工程学的本质只是希望找到一种物质可以影响到另一种的物质的学问,那么,关系学和实用学的结合是不是能够更好的指导我们对科学的认识?                                       
                                                                                                                                                                               
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历史是未来的指路明灯,从一个科学家的研究历史可以很细致的知道癌症研究的一些历史过程。

Bishop JM是1989年因为发现细胞癌基因(原癌基因)而获得诺贝尔奖。先简约看看他的研究历史。或许对某个学生将来进入自己的研究领域有启发意义。

Varmus HE和Bishop JM开始的时候与Vogt PK一起研究肿瘤病毒,那个时候肿瘤病毒学说盛行,美国开始了寻找癌症病毒的计划,因为很多人深信某些病毒可能是癌症的根源。Varmus HE和Bishop JM也不例外。他们研究鸡的肉瘤病毒如何导致肿瘤发生,该实验需要DNA杂交实验,检测逆转录病毒的反转录后DNA插入位点等。见文献:

Varmus HE, Bishop JM, Vogt PK.
Appearance of virus-specific DNA in mammalian cells following transformation by Rous sarcoma virus.
J Mol Biol. 1973 Mar 15;74(4):613-26.

Stehelin D, Varmus HE, Bishop JM.
Detection of nucleotide sequences associated with transformation by avian sarcoma viruses.
Bibl Haematol. 1975 Oct;(43):539-41.

1976 年值得纪念,因为用没有被鸡肉瘤病毒感染的鸡的组织做对照时,发现本来设计出来用来检测逆转录病毒的反转录后DNA插入情况的,意外发现没有被鸡肉瘤病毒感染的鸡的组织也总是被检测到存在类似鸡肉瘤病毒的反转录后类似的DNA序列,原癌基因被意外发现了,因此,研究不要总是寻找与别人一样,相反,不一样才可能是重要发现。见文献:

Stehelin D, Varmus HE, Bishop JM, Vogt PK.
DNA related to the transforming geneMoon of avian sarcoma viruses is present in normal avian DNA.
Nature. 1976 Mar 11;260(5547):170-3.

随后又在RNA水平证实正常动物细胞也存在类似鸡肉瘤病毒的RNA.进一步证实原癌基因存在的真实性。见文献:

Spector DH, Baker B, Varmus HE, Bishop JM.
Characteristics of cellular RNA related to the transforming gene of avian sarcoma viruses.
Cell. 1978 Feb;13(2):381-6.

Spector DH, Smith K, Padgett T, McCombe P, Roulland-Dussoix D, Moscovici C, Varmus HE, Bishop JM.
Uninfected avian cells contain RNA related to the transforming gene of avian sarcoma viruses.
Cell. 1978 Feb;13(2):371-9.

随着发现很多动物体内都存在类似鸡肉瘤病毒的DNA序列,而低等生物很少存在,Bishop JM等人提出病毒的转化基因来自正常动物细胞的假说,并给出确凿的证据。见文献:

Spector DH, Varmus HE, Bishop JM.
Nucleotide sequences related to the transforming gene of avian sarcoma virus are present in DNA of uninfected vertebrates.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1978 Sep;75(9):4102-6.

Bishop JM, Baker B, Fujita D, McCombe P, Sheiness D, Smith K, Spector DH, Stehelin D, Varmus HE.
Genesis of a virus-transforming gene.
Natl Cancer Inst Monogr. 1978 May;(48):219-23.

接着,在蛋白水平证实鸡肉瘤病毒转化基因编码的蛋白类似正常鸡细胞内的一种蛋白。目的很明确,试图说明什么?癌基因学说?见文献:

Levinson AD, Oppermann H, Levintow L, Varmus HE, Bishop JM.
Evidence that the transforming gene of avian sarcoma virus encodes a protein kinase associated with a phosphoprotein.
Cell. 1978 Oct;15(2):561-72.

Oppermann H, Levinson AD, Varmus HE, Levintow L, Bishop JM.
Uninfected vertebrate cells contain a protein that is closely related to the product of the avian sarcoma virus transforming gene (src).
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1979 Apr;76(4):1804-8.

癌基因学说开始拉开了序幕:
Bishop JM.
Enemies within: the genesis of retrovirus oncogenes.
Cell. 1981 Jan;23(1):5-6.

开始研究细胞癌基因及其产物的特征和功能,而这种研究总离不开与病毒的转化基因和其产物的特征和功能的比较:

Parker RC, Varmus HE, Bishop JM.
Cellular homologue (c-src) of the transforming gene of Rous sarcoma virus: isolation, mapping, and transcriptional analysis of c-src and flanking regions.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1981 Sep;78(9):5842-6.

Smart JE, Oppermann H, Czernilofsky AP, Purchio AF, Erikson RL, Bishop JM.
Characterization of sites for tyrosine phosphorylation in the transforming protein of Rous sarcoma virus (pp60v-src) and its normal cellular homologue (pp60c-src).
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1981 Oct;78(10):6013-7.

遗传学方法发现了恶性神经内分泌肿瘤细胞中细胞癌基因c-myc发生扩增,c-Ki-ras也发现类似。随后开始了肿瘤基因和其产物的研究热潮:

Alitalo K, Schwab M, Lin CC, Varmus HE, Bishop JM.
Homogeneously staining chromosomal regions contain amplified copies of an abundantly expressed cellular oncogene (c-myc) in malignant neuroendocrine cells from a human colon carcinoma.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1983 Mar;80Devil:1707-11.

Schwab M, Alitalo K, Varmus HE, Bishop JM, George D.
A cellular oncogene (c-Ki-ras) is amplified, overexpressed, and located within karyotypic abnormalities in mouse adrenocortical tumour cells.
Nature. 1983 Jun 9-15;303(5917):497-501.

Bishop JM.
Cancer genes come of age.
Cell. 1983 Apr;32(4):1018-20.

Schwab M, Alitalo K, Klempnauer KH, Varmus HE, Bishop JM, Gilbert F, Brodeur G, Goldstein M, Trent J.
Amplified DNA with limited homology to myc cellular oncogene is shared by human neuroblastoma cell lines and a neuroblastoma tumour.
Nature. 1983 Sep 15-21;305(5931):245-8.

Alitalo K, Winqvist R, Lin CC, de la Chapelle A, Schwab M, Bishop JM.
Aberrant expression of an amplified c-myb oncogene in two cell lines from a colon carcinoma.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1984 Jul;81(14):4534-8.

Brodeur GM, Seeger RC, Schwab M, Varmus HE, Bishop JM.
Amplification of N-myc in untreated human neuroblastomas correlates with advanced disease stage.
Science. 1984 Jun 8;224(4653):1121-4.

Schwab M, Ellison J, Busch M, Rosenau W, Varmus HE, Bishop JM.
Enhanced expression of the human gene N-myc consequent to amplification of DNA may contribute to malignant progression of neuroblastoma.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1984 Aug;81(15):4940-4.

Schwab M, Ramsay G, Alitalo K, Varmus HE, Bishop JM, Martinsson T, Levan G, Levan A.
Amplification and enhanced expression of the c-myc oncogene in mouse SEWA tumour cells.
Nature. 1985 May 23-29;315(6017):345-7.

Schwab M, Varmus HE, Bishop JM.
Human N-myc gene contributes to neoplastic transformation of mammalian cells in culture.
Nature. 1985 Jul 11-17;316(6024):160-2.

Small MB, Hay N, Schwab M, Bishop JM.
Neoplastic transformation by the human gene N-myc.
Mol Cell Biol. 1987 May;7(5):1638-45.

Liu E, Hjelle B, Morgan R, Hecht F, Bishop JM.
Mutations of the Kirsten-ras proto-oncogene in human preleukaemia.
Nature. 1987 Nov 12-18;330(6144):186-8.

90年代之后,Bishop继续沿着自己以前的发现研究,没有大的改变,主要研究癌基因的转化功能,与癌基因作用的蛋白,癌基因之间的协同,癌基因对癌症细胞的表型维持和逆转等。见文献:

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entr ... splay&DB=pubmed
肿瘤分子生物学和遗传学权威weinberg ra 的研究历史可能对我们研究癌基因和抑癌基因具有莫大帮助.

上个世纪70年代末,weinberg ra 的研究生涯是从病毒与癌变关系入手的,那时他主要研究逆转录病毒如何转录,翻译,整合入动物细胞,可能那时因为逆转录酶的发现激活了该研究领域,并且这种病毒当时有人认为其整合入动物细胞可以引起基因突变,从而与癌变建立某种联系。文献参见:

Weinberg RA, Warnaar SO, Winocour E. Isolation and characterization of simian virus 40 ribonucleic acid. J Virol. 1972 Aug;10(2):193-201.

Weinberg RA. Nuclear RNA metabolism. Annu Rev Biochem. 1973;42:329-54.

Rothenberg E, Smotkin D, Baltimore D, Weinberg RA. In vitro synthesis of infectious DNA of murine leukaemia virus. Nature. 1977 Sep 8;269(5624):122-6.

Andersson P, Goldfarb MP, Weinberg RA. A defined subgenomic fragment of in vitro synthesized Moloney sarcoma virus DNA can induce cell transformation upon transfection.Cell. 1979 Jan;16(1):63-75.

可能是从病毒转化实验得到启示,癌细胞的表型受少数基因决定,因为病毒基因中具有转化能力的基因只是很小的一个片断, Weinberg RA等大胆推测化学诱导的癌细胞中也可能具有类似的基因片断,因此开始了其癌症研究生涯中具有决定意义的实验,该简单的实验折射出无限的思索和寻踪:
Shih C, Shilo BZ, Goldfarb MP, Dannenberg A, Weinberg RA. Passage of phenotypes of chemically transformed cells via transfection of DNA and chromatin.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1979 Nov;76(11):5714-8.

1981年,Weinberg RA实验室如法炮制,在不同的肿瘤中发现可能存在不同的癌基因,奠定了其至今坚持癌基因学说的实验基础:

Shih C, Padhy LC, Murray M, Weinberg RA. Transforming genes of carcinomas and neuroblastomas introduced into mouse fibroblasts.Nature. 1981 Mar 19;290(5803):261-4.

Shilo BZ, Weinberg RA. Unique transforming gene in carcinogen-transformed mouse cells.Nature. 1981 Feb 12;289(5798):607-9.

1982 年,他的实验室分离出那个癌基因,奇迹是竟然这个基因序列类似肉瘤病毒的癌基因RAS的序列,一个巧合,30000多个基因,为什么偏偏是这个基因巧合?随后发现这个细胞癌基因与原癌基因差别只是一个氨基酸序列,于是提出癌基因激活的一种方式:点突变,这样突变与癌变的关系似乎建立了起来。

Parada LF, Tabin CJ, Shih C, Weinberg RA. Human EJ bladder carcinoma oncogene is homologue of Harvey sarcoma virus ras gene. Nature. 1982 Jun 10;297(5866):474-8.

Shih C, Weinberg RA. Isolation of a transforming sequence from a human bladder carcinoma cell line.Cell. 1982 May;29(1):161-9.

Tabin CJ, Bradley SM, Bargmann CI, Weinberg RA, Papageorge AG, Scolnick EM, Dhar R, Lowy DR, Chang EH. Mechanism of activation of a human oncogene.Nature. 1982 Nov 11;300(5888):143-9.

接着,由于RAS只能转化非整倍体的NIH-3T3细胞而不能转化原代培样的成纤维细胞,于是经过分析和实验,他的实验室证明两个癌基因可以转化原代培养的大鼠的成纤维细胞,并提出了分子水平的多步癌变学说:

Land H, Parada LF, Weinberg RA. Tumorigenic conversion of primary embryo fibroblasts requires at least two cooperating oncogenes.Nature. 1983 Aug 18-24;304(5927):596-602.

Land H, Parada LF, Weinberg RA. Cellular oncogenes and multistep carcinogenesis.
Science. 1983 Nov 18;222(4625):771-8.

那时发现突变的P53是癌基因,可以与RAS协同转化细胞:
Parada LF, Land H, Weinberg RA, Wolf D, Rotter V. Cooperation between gene encoding p53 tumour antigen and ras in cellular transformation.
Nature. 1984 Dec 13-19;312(5995):649-51.

1985年,依照类似的思想:癌症的各种表型由少数遗传因素(激活的基因决定),开始了研究癌细胞转移的基因的搜寻实验:

Bernstein SC, Weinberg RA. Expression of the metastatic phenotype in cells transfected with human metastatic tumor DNA.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1985 Mar;82Devil:1726-30. Erratum in: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1988 Aug;85(15):5581.

另一方面从反面证明癌的表型维持由少数癌基因决定,同时发现细胞癌基因突变方式多样:

Drebin JA, Link VC, Stern DF, Weinberg RA, Greene MI. Down-modulation of an oncogene protein product and reversion of the transformed phenotype by monoclonal antibodies.Cell. 1985 Jul;41(3):697-706.

Chipperfield RG, Jones SS, Lo KM, Weinberg RA.
Activation of Ha-ras p21 by substitution, deletion, and insertion mutations.
Mol Cell Biol. 1985 Aug;5Musical Note:1809-13.

在理论方面,Weinberg RA.按照癌基因之间的协同关系,对癌基因进行了分类:
Weinberg RA. The action of oncogenes in the cytoplasm and nucleus.
Science. 1985 Nov 15;230(4727):770-6.


1986年,他们对不同癌基因的蛋白产物进行了分析,另外开始了癌基因的信号通路的研究,因为他们发现不同的癌基因之间协同和反映不同:
McCoy MS, Weinberg RA. A human Ki-ras oncogene encodes two transforming p21 proteins.Mol Cell Biol. 1986 Apr;6(4):1326-8.

Stern DF, Roberts AB, Roche NS, Sporn MB, Weinberg RA. Differential responsiveness of myc- and ras-transfected cells to growth factors: selective stimulation of myc-transfected cells by epidermal growth factor.Mol Cell Biol. 1986 Mar;6(3):870-7.

Bargmann CI, Hung MC, Weinberg RA. The neu oncogene encodes an epidermal growth factor receptor-related protein.Nature. 1986 Jan 16-22;319(6050):226-30.

发现不同的癌基因对应不同的癌的表型:
Land H, Chen AC, Morgenstern JP, Parada LF, Weinberg RA. Behavior of myc and ras oncogenes in transformation of rat embryo fibroblasts.
Mol Cell Biol. 1986 Jun;6Devil:1917-25.

同年,他们找到了第一个抑癌基因:RB
Friend SH, Bernards R, Rogelj S, Weinberg RA, Rapaport JM, Albert DM, Dryja TP. A human DNA segment with properties of the gene that predisposes to retinoblastoma and osteosarcoma.
Nature. 1986 Oct 16-22;323(6089):643-6.

1989年推出被引用上千次的文献:
Weinberg RA. Oncogenes, antioncogenes, and the molecular bases of multistep carcinogenesis.
Cancer Res. 1989 Jul 15;49(14):3713-21.

1989年之后,直到1999年,10年之间Weinberg RA一直致力于癌基因相互作用的基因,癌基因的激活方式,癌基因发生的频率,癌基因与抑癌基因的关系,抑癌基因的作用方式,抑癌基因发生的频率,与癌症的相关性,这些基因如何导致癌症等等,

1999年值得纪念,因为首次证明了有限的基因可以转化人类细胞:
Hahn WC, Counter CM, Lundberg AS, Beijersbergen RL, Brooks MW, Weinberg RA. Creation of human tumour cells with defined genetic elements.
Nature. 1999 Jul 29;400(6743):464-8.

随后,对人类不同组织的细胞进行了转化实验:
Elenbaas B, Spirio L, Koerner F, Fleming MD, Zimonjic DB, Donaher JL, Popescu NC, Hahn WC, Weinberg RA. Human breast cancer cells generated by oncogenic transformation of primary mammary epithelial cells.
Genes Dev. 2001 Jan 1;15(1):50-65.

关于这些被转化的细胞核型是否非整倍体化,存在争议,但是Weinberg捍卫自己的学说和结果:
Zimonjic D, Brooks MW, Popescu N, Weinberg RA, Hahn WC.
Derivation of human tumor cells in vitro without widespread genomic instability.
Cancer Res. 2001 Dec 15;61(24):8838-44.

2002年发表了制造人类癌细胞的文献总结:
Hahn WC, Weinberg RA.
Rules for making human tumor cells.
N Engl J Med. 2002 Nov 14;347(20):1593-603. Review. No abstract available. Erratum in: N Engl J Med. 2003 Feb 13;348(7):674.

2004年证明不同物种,不同组织的细胞发生转化需要改变不同的信号通路
Rangarajan A, Hong SJ, Gifford A, Weinberg RA.
Species- and cell type-specific requirements for cellular transformation.
Cancer Cell. 2004 Aug;6(2):171-83.

现在,Weinberg RA的研究方向似乎向肿瘤转移的分子生物学方向进步,不知道癌基因学说在他的努力下还有什么激动人心的事情发生,目前似乎已经达到顶峰,然而,Weinberg RA的思想顶峰过早预测可能会失败。
Peter Duesberg是癌症研究领域的一个特殊人物,原因在于其独特的思维方式。这位具有传奇色彩的教授,有很多头衔,科普宣传他是当代的唐吉科德,而科学界有人认为他是癌症研究领域的哥白尼,不管怎样,只有真的了解他的研究历史,才可能真的能够理解他。Peter Duesberg最早进入癌症研究领域也是从研究逆转录病毒开始:

Duesberg PH.
Physical properties of Rous Sarcoma Virus RNA.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1968 Aug;60(4):1511-8.

Duesberg PH.
On the structure of RNA tumor viruses.
Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 1970;51:78-104.

下面两篇文章是DUESBERG早期参与发现病毒癌基因的证据:
Duesberg PH, Vogt PK.
Differences between the ribonucleic acids of transforming and nontransforming avian tumor viruses.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1970 Dec;67(4):1673-80.

Lai MM, Duesberg PH, Horst J, Vogt PK.
Avian tumor virus RNA: a comparison of three sarcoma viruses and their transformation-defective derivatives by oligonucleotide fingerprinting and DNA-RNA hybridization.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1973 Aug;70Musical Note:2266-70.

可能只是注意逆转录肿瘤病毒的结构,所以他最早发现逆转录病毒癌基因,但是却没有机会发现细胞癌基因了。

Kawai S, Duesberg PH, Hanafusa H.
Transformation-defective mutants of Rous sarcoma virus with src gene deletions of varying length.
J Virol. 1977 Dec;24(3):910-4.

Duesberg PH, Vogt PK.
Avian acute leukemia viruses MC29 and MH2 share specific RNA sequences: evidence for a second class of transforming genes.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1979 Apr;76(4):1633-7

Bister K, Duesberg PH.
Structure and specific sequences of avian erythroblastosis virus RNA: evidence for multiple classes of transforming genes among avian tumor viruses.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1979 Oct;76(10):5023-7.

Duesberg PH.
Transforming genes of retroviruses.
Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol. 1980;44 Pt 1,:13-29. Review.

由于在病毒癌基因方面的权威性,通过多重分析比较病毒癌基因和细胞原癌基因之间的结构、功能、产物等等之后,Duesberg PH在1983年开始质疑细胞癌基因的存在,也开始了他反癌基因潮流研究的开始:
Duesberg PH.
Retroviral transforming genes in normal cells?
Nature. 1983 Jul 21-27;304(5923):219-26. Review.

1985年依然质疑癌基因学说:
Science. 1985 May 10;228(4700):669-77. Links
Activated proto-onc genes: sufficient or necessary for cancer?Duesberg PH.
Proto-onc genes are normal cellular genes that are related to the transforming (onc) genes of retroviruses. Because of this relationship these genes are now widely believed to be potential cancer genes. In some tumors, proto-onc genes are mutated or expressed more than in normal cells. Under these conditions, proto-onc genes are hypothesized to be active cancer genes in one of two possible ways: The one gene-one cancer hypothesis suggests that one activated proto-onc gene is sufficient to cause cancer. The multigene-one cancer hypothesis suggests that an activated proto-onc gene is a necessary but not a sufficient cause of cancer. However, mutated or transcriptionally activated proto-onc genes are not consistently associated with the tumors in which they are occasionally found and do not transform primary cells. Further, no set of an activated proto-onc gene and a complementary cancer gene with transforming function has yet been isolated from a tumor. Thus, there is still no proof that activated proto-onc genes are sufficient or even necessary to cause cancer.

1987年依然反对癌基因学说,逐渐向非整倍体假说靠拢:
Duesberg PH.
Cancer genes: rare recombinants instead of activated oncogenes (a review).
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987 Apr;84Musical Note:2117-24.

The 20 known transforming (onc) genes of retroviruses are defined by sequences that are transduced from cellular genes termed protooncogenes or cellular oncogenes. Based on these sequences, viral onc genes have been postulated to be transduced cellular cancer genes, and proto-onc genes have been postulated to be latent cancer genes that can be activated from within the cell to cause virus-negative tumors. The hypothesis is popular because it promises direct access to cellular cancer genes. However, the existence of latent cancer genes presents a paradox, since such genes are clearly undesirable. The hypothesis predicts that viral onc genes and proto-onc genes are isogenic; that expression of proto-onc genes induces tumors; that activated proto-onc genes transform diploid cells upon transfection, like viral onc genes; and that diploid tumors exist. As yet, none of these predictions is confirmed. Instead: Structural comparisons between viral onc genes, essential retroviral genes, and proto-onc genes show that all viral onc genes are indeed new genes, rather than transduced cellular cancer genes. They are recombinants put together from truncated viral and truncated proto-onc genes. Proto-onc genes are frequently expressed in normal cells. To date, not one activated proto-onc gene has been isolated that transforms diploid cells. Above all, no diploid tumors with activated proto-onc genes have been found. Moreover, the probability of spontaneous transformation in vivo is at least 10(9) times lower than predicted from the mechanisms thought to activate proto-onc genes. Therefore, the hypothesis that proto-onc genes are latent cellular oncogenes appears to be an overinterpretation of sequence homology to structural and functional homology with viral onc genes. Here it is proposed that only rare truncations and illegitimate recombinations that alter the germ-line configuration of cellular genes generate viral and possibly cellular cancer genes. The clonal chromosome abnormalities that are consistently found in tumor cells are microscopic evidence for rearrangements that may generate cancer genes. The clonality indicates that the tumors are initiated with, and possibly by, these abnormalities, as predicted by Boveri in 1914.

然而,1987年,他似乎或者现在已经成为事实20年了,他质疑癌基因学说的同时,也否认艾滋病是传染病,更不承认艾滋病的元凶是HIV.为此,引起SCIENCE杂志对其进行了4个对月的调查,结果我不清楚,大家看看,仁者见仁

Duesberg P.
HIV is not the cause of AIDS.
Science. 1988 Jul 29;241(4865):514, 517.

Duesberg PH.
Human immunodeficiency virus and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: correlation but not causation.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Feb;86(3):755-64. Review.

Duesberg P.
Duesberg's PNAS paper.
Science. 1989 Mar 3;243(4895):1125.

Duesberg P.
Defective viruses and AIDS.
Nature. 1989 Aug 17;340(6234):515.

Duesberg PH.
"The Duesberg phenomenon": Duesberg and other voices.
Science. 1995 Jan 20;267(5196):313-4;

他反对癌基因学说的关键是基因表达量的问题,也就是他认为细胞原癌基因要致癌必须获得类似病毒启动子的强力转录力量:
Wu Y, Zhou H, Duesberg P.
Unmutated proto-src coding region is tumorigenic if expressed from the promoter of Rous sarcoma virus: implications for the gene-mutation hypothesis of cancer.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992 Jul 15;89(14):6393-7.

Duesberg PH.
Oncogenes and cancer.
Science. 1995 Mar 10;267(5203):1407-8.

Hua VY, Wang WK, Duesberg PH.
Dominant transformation by mutated human ras genes in vitro requires more than 100 times higher expression than is observed in cancers.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997 Sep 2;94(18):9614-9.

由于对癌基因学说的坚决反对,他的研究经费被切断,但是1997年,他在私人捐赠下,和他的学生证实提出癌变的非整倍体假说:
Li R, Yerganian G, Duesberg P, Kraemer A, Willer A, Rausch C, Hehlmann R.
Aneuploidy correlated 100% with chemical transformation of Chinese hamster cells.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997 Dec 23;94(26):14506-11.

1999年,Weinberg实验室宣布有限的癌基因可以转化人类细胞时,他检测了这些细胞,说这些细胞时非整体核型,依然支持非整倍体假说,为此,肿瘤研究领域争论再次掀起:

Li R, Sonik A, Stindl R, Rasnick D, Duesberg P.
Aneuploidy vs. gene mutation hypothesis of cancer: recent study claims mutation but is found to support aneuploidy.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000 Mar 28;97(7):3236-41.

现在,可以看看这位教授几十年的研究结果了,癌变的非整倍体假说:

Duesberg P, Rasnick D.
Aneuploidy, the somatic mutation that makes cancer a species of its own.
Cell Motil Cytoskeleton. 2000 Oct;47(2):81-107. Review.

Duesberg P, Li R.
Multistep carcinogenesis: a chain reaction of aneuploidizations.
Cell Cycle. 2003 May-Jun;2(3):202-10. Review.

Duesberg P, Li R, Fabarius A, Hehlmann R.
Aneuploidy and cancer: from correlation to causation.
Contrib Microbiol. 2006;13:16-44. Review.
问题产生和解决的源头

从古至今,人类一直不能摆脱的问题很多,但是最重要的问题莫过于是非问题(或对错问题,或主观与客观一致的问题)。因为几乎我们面临的所有问题通过追根溯源办法都可能最总归于该问题。多年的挫折经验积累,人类发现惟有理解事物的真相才可能根本解决该问题.

西方很早就提出了追求真理的口号。中国古代一直流行道德第一,才能第二,该观念现在依然受到推崇.然而,人类面临的第一问题是:是非问题,而不是道德问题。

是非问题决定生死,决定生活质量,而道德问题只是是非问题解决后才衍生的问题,说到底,是人类内部生存竞争基础上的一种协议.没有竞争不会有道德的产生,没有竞争,道德没有必要产生。况且,是非问题不解决,道德也只是盲目的道德,甚至是愚蠢的道德。因此,坚持追求真理第一位,不但非常重要,并且明知有效。

坚持道德第一,本质上是一种自我封锁和愚民政策。因为,道德第一常常使很多人在是非问题面前屈服于所谓的道德,而迷失方向,进而,一切问题随之而生。

坚持是非问题第一,道德才成为是非问题,这样道德不再是顽固的枷锁,而成为时刻有可能被改变问题。也只有道德时刻与是非保持一致才可能具有进步的价值,否则,就是桎梏或者成为玩笑。现在中国社会产生的很多奇怪现象的本质就是道德和是非问题分离结果。

人类有嘲笑和讽刺各种道德的各种理由和本钱,但是没有人有嘲笑和讽刺真理的理由和本钱。

说到底,人类的第一重要问题是是非问题而不是道德问题,这个问题的颠倒是东西方竞争差距产生的根本原因。

古老的东方进步优于西方源于那时人类的思维进步整体上还处于经验时期,东方在经验积累上优于西方。然而,对于真理的追求和鼓励使西方人早于东方人进入理性时代:认识世界本来面目的真理时代,这时东方就落后了。虽然后来中国人很多人认为中国的落后是科技的落后,而科技的落后是社会制度的落后,但是事实上是我们在认识问题的方法上整体落后了,在认识结果上表现为科技和社会制度的落后。

不论科技问题还是社会问题都首先是真理问题,但是至今,我很少听到追求真理的呼声.除了20-70年代,***提出过这样的口号,但是似乎没有将这个问题深深种植于我们民族的基因之中,因为现在这样的口号不再了,甚至很多无知的人认为这样的口号过时了.实际上,这个问题依然是我们面临的头等大问题,看看我们学术的水平和社会问题,不论科学还是社会学,都值得担忧。

最近,政府提出建设创新型国家的口号,然而,创新的核心问题依然是真理是非问题.但政府为什么用创新来代替真理?

提出追求真理比提出创新更能够目标明确,因为真理是创新的核心本质,离开本质谈论现象是本末倒置。
人类的学问介因问题而生,不论科学、宗教、文学、艺术还是哲学等等。

不同的问题和解决问题的方式决定了学问的性质和发展方向。

对于问题,人类需要依赖工具来解决,工具基本可以分为两类:思想工具和物质工具。一些问题只能借助思想工具来解决,比如人生的本质和意义。一些问题需要思想工具和物质工具的结合来解决,主要是科学问题。

对于同一个问题有不同的看法是因为人类具有不同的思想方式。哲学是一种思想方式,也可被理解为一种思维工具,放弃哲学就意味着放弃思想工具,意味着思想残废。

依赖不同的思维方式产生了不同的哲学和宗教。依赖不同的思维方式和物质工具产生了不同的具体学科。

人类文化的核心是:思维工具和物质工具。

物质工具是人类在认识事物特质基础上,对物质特性的利用,而事物的特性是事物与其他事物之间的特殊关系。

问题的本质是事物的关系:历史关系,横向关系,层次关系。

认识事物需要设定坐标,建立概念,然后分析不同概念的关系。思维混乱的根源在于基本概念的不明确。错误起源于概念与事物的对应关系.建立新概念是明确新事物与已知事物之间关系。

实验认识事物需要得到纯化的物质(对应绝对概念),只有纯化的物质之间的关系才是真正的关系。早期的物理学和化学诞生就是这样,可想,没有他们不可能有现在的生物化学和分子生物学,因为我们首先无法获得纯化的物质,更不要说研究他们之间的关系了。

新工具诞生于纯化物质。

分离纯化物质目前有两种方法:利用物质的特性,从大量原料中分离;利用物质特性,大量合成,比如化学和分子克隆。分离纯化目前依然是现代工业的基石。

确立因果关系需要明确几种关系,这种关系称为Koch’s规则,当初Robert Koch (1843-1910)用这样的逻辑来推测微生物与疾病的关系,拓展开来也似乎可以用于其他因果关系的识别。有4个原则:1)微生物必须存在于所有的患者体内,2)这种微生物必须能够从患者体内分离(并体外培养),3)分离的微生物必须能够在适当动物体内引起该疾病,4)从实验引起患病的动物体内能够分离到该微生物。

癌症病因探询也应当遵循Koch’s规则,如果什么因素是癌症的直接原因,那么:1)所有的癌细胞都具有该物质,2)这种物质可以从癌症细胞中分离出来,3)这种物质可以在动物体内引起类似的癌症,4)从被动物机体诱导的癌症细胞中可以分离到该物质。

一种物质如果是癌症的原因,那么应当遵循下面原则:1)所有的癌症细胞中都必须有该物质(必要条件),2)一定的该物质必然能够引起癌症,阻断该物质后,癌症消失(充分条件)。
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发贴心情
在癌基因研究方面,Cooper GM做了很多贡献,方法与Weinberg RA的方法类似,提取肿瘤细胞的DNA,转移到相对正常的NIH-3T3细胞中,看看是否有刺激细胞生长的基因。

Nature. 1980 Apr 3;284(5755):418-21.
Transforming activity of DNA of chemically transformed and normal cells.

Cooper GM, Okenquist S, Silverman L.

DNA fragments of chemically transformed and normal avian and murine cells induce transformation of NIH 3T3 mouse cells with low efficiencies. High molecular weight DNAs of cells transformed by DNA fragments induce transformation with high efficiencies in secondary transfection assays. It thus seems that endogenous transforming genes of uninfected cells can be activated and efficiently transmitted by transfection. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that normal cells contain genes that are capable of inducing transformation if expressed at abnormal levels.
Nature. 1980 Oct 16;287(5783):656-9.
Transforming genes of neoplasms induced by avian lymphoid leukosis viruses.

Cooper GM, Neiman PE.

Oncogenic avian retroviruses can be classified into three groups: sarcoma viruses, acute leukaemia viruses and lymphoid leukosis viruses (LLVs). Sarcoma and acute leukaemia viruses transform fibroblasts and/or haematopoietic cells in culture and induce tumours with short latent periods in infected birds. In contrast, LLVs do not transform cells in vitro and require long latent periods before formation of neoplasms in vivo. The most frequent neoplasm induced by LLVs is malignant lymphoma of the bursa of Fabricius, but LLVs also induce other neoplasms, including sarcomas, nephroblastomas and erythroblastosis. The genomes of both sarcoma and acute leukaemai viruses contain specific genes responsible for viral oncogenicity, whereas the genome of LLVs apparently includes only genes required for virus replication. The genetic basis for the low oncogenic potential of LLVs is therefore obscure. The present experiments indicate that LLV-induced tumours contain transforming genes that can be detected by transfection of NH 3T3 mouse cells. These transforming genes are not linked to LLV DNA sequences, suggesting that oncogenesis by LLVs may result from indirect activation of cellular transforming genes.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1981 Feb;78(2):1181-4.
Transforming activity of human tumor DNAs.

Krontiris TG, Cooper GM.
High molecular weight DNAs of 26 human tumors and tumor cell lines were assayed for the presence of transmissible activated transforming genes by transfection of NIH 3T3 mouse cells. DNAs of two bladder carcinoma cell lines induced transformation with high efficiencies (approximately 0.2 transformant per microgram of DNA), whereas DNAs of the other tumors studied lacked detectable transforming activity. These findings suggest that dominant mutations or gene rearrangements can result in the activation of cellular transforming genes in some human tumors.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1981 Aug;78Musical Note:5185-9.
Activation of related transforming genes in mouse and human mammary carcinomas.

Lane MA, Sainten A, Cooper GM.

High molecular weight DNAs of five tumors induced by mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV), two mouse mammary tumors induced by a chemical carcinogen, and one human mammary tumor cell line (MCF-7) were assayed for the presence of transmissible activated transforming genes by transfection of NIH 3T3 mouse cells. DNAs of all five MMTV-induced tumors, one chemical carcinogen-induced tumor, and the human tumor cell line induced transformation with high efficiencies (approximately 0.2 transformant per micrograms of DNA). NIH cells transformed by DNAs of MMTV-induced tumors did not contain exogenous MMTV DNA sequences, indicating that MMTV-induced mammary carcinomas contained activated cellular transforming genes that were not linked to viral DNA. The transforming activities of DNAs of all five MMTV-induced tumors, the chemical carcinogen-induced mouse tumor, and the human tumor cell line were inactivated by digestion with the restriction endonucleases Pvu II and Sac I, but not by BamHI, EcoRI, HindIII, Kpn I, or Xho I. These results indicate that the same or closely related transforming genes were activated in six different mouse mammary carcinomas, induced by either MMTV or a chemical carcinogen, and in a human mammary carcinoma cell line.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1982 May;79(10):3315-9.
Identification of an antigen associated with transforming genes of human and mouse mammary carcinomas.

Becker D, Lane MA, Cooper GM.

Sera from tumor-bearing mice immunoprecipitated a 86,000-dalton glycoprotein from extracts of NIH cells transformed by human mammary carcinoma DNA. This antigen was not immunoprecipitated from extracts of NIH 3T3 cells, spontaneously transformed NIH cells, NIH cells transformed by normal human DNA, NIH cells transformed by human bladder carcinoma DNA, or NIH cells transformed by Rous sarcoma virus DNA. In addition, sera from mice bearing tumors induced by NIH cells transformed by either normal human DNA or human bladder carcinoma DNA did not immunoprecipitate this antigen from extracts of NIH cells transformed by human mammary carcinoma DNA. However, this antigen was immunoprecipitated by sera from mice bearing tumors induced by NIH cells transformed by mouse mammary carcinoma DNAs and from mice bearing primary mammary carcinomas. These results indicate that this glycoprotein represents an antigen that is specifically associated with expression of the transmissible transforming genes of human and mouse mammary carcinomas.

Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1982 Jun;79(11):3637-40.
Transforming genes of human bladder and lung carcinoma cell lines are homologous to the ras genes of Harvey and Kirsten sarcoma viruses.

Der CJ, Krontiris TG, Cooper GM.

Blot hybridization analysis indicated that NIH 3T3 mouse bladder transformed by high molecular weight DNAs of a human bladder and a human lung carcinoma cell line contained new sequences homologous, respectively, to the transforming genes of Harvey (rasH) and Kirsten (rasK) sarcoma viruses. The unique ras sequences were present in multiple independent NIH cell lines transformed in both primary and secondary transfection assays and corresponded to ras sequences normally present in human DNAs. The ras gene product was expressed in NIH cells transformed by bladder carcinoma DNAs and in the human bladder carcinoma cell lines at levels 2- to 4-fold greater than the level observed in nontransformed NIH 3T3 cells. These results indicate that the transforming genes of these human tumor cell lines are the cellular homologs of two retroviral transforming genes.
Science. 1982 Aug 27;217(4562):801-6.
Cellular transforming genes.

Cooper GM.

Cellular genes potentially capable of inducing oncogenic transformation have been identified by homology to the transforming genes of retroviruses and by the biological activity of cellular DNA's in transfection assays. DNA's of various tumors induce transformation with high efficiencies, indicating that oncogenesis can involve dominant genetic alterations resulting in activation of cellular transforming genes. The identification and characterization of cellular transforming genes and their possible involvement in naturally occurring cancers, is discussed.

Cell. 1983 Jan;32(1):201-8.
Altered gene products are associated with activation of cellular rasK genes in human lung and colon carcinomas.

Der CJ, Cooper GM.

Two lung and two colon carcinoma cell lines of human origin, which contained the same activated rasK transforming gene, expressed abnormal species of p21 that were distinct from the p21 proteins expressed in normal human cells and other human carcinomas. The abnormal species of p21 expressed by three of these cell lines were indistinguishable from each other, but differed from the abnormal p21 expressed by one lung carcinoma cell line. NIH cells transformed by DNAs of these carcinomas expressed the same abnormal p21 species, indicating that these abnormal proteins were encoded by the activated rasK genes detected by transfection. These results indicate that transforming activity of rasK genes in human lung and colon carcinoma cell lines is activated by mutations which alter the structure of their gene products, and that activation of rasK genes can result from different molecular alterations in different individual neoplasms.
Nature. 1983 Mar 10;302(5904):114-9.

Molecular cloning and nucleotide sequence of a transforming gene detected by transfection of chicken B-cell lymphoma DNA.

Goubin G, Goldman DS, Luce J, Neiman PE, Cooper GM.

A transforming gene detected by transfection of chicken B-cell lymphoma DNA has been isolated by molecular cloning. It is homologous to a conserved family of sequences present in normal chicken and human DNAs but is not related to transforming genes of acutely transforming retroviruses. The nucleotide sequence of the cloned transforming gene suggests that it encodes a protein that is partially homologous to the amino terminus of transferrin and related proteins although only about one tenth the size of transferrin.

Nature. 1983 Sep 8-14;305(5930):112-6.
Identification and molecular cloning of the human Blym transforming gene activated in Burkitt's lymphomas.

Diamond A, Cooper GM, Ritz J, Lane MA.

DNAs of six Burkitt's lymphoma cell lines contained an activated transforming gene detected by transfection of NIH 3T3 cells. This gene was cloned from a recombinant library of Burkitt's lymphoma DNA and identified as a human homologue of chicken Blym-1, the transforming gene detected by transfection of chicken B-cell lymphoma DNA.

1: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1984 Apr;81(7):2227-31.
Isolation and characterization of a stage-specific transforming gene, Tlym-I, from T-cell lymphomas.

Lane MA, Sainten A, Doherty KM, Cooper GM.

A cellular transforming gene detected by transfection of mouse T-cell lymphoma DNA has been isolated by molecular cloning. This gene (designated Tlym-I) is homologous to a small conserved family of sequences present in normal mouse and human DNAs but is not related to any of the previously described viral or cellular transforming genes.

Science. 1984 Aug 3;225(4661):516-9.
Nucleotide sequence of a human Blym transforming gene activated in a Burkitt's lymphoma.

Diamond A, Devine JM, Cooper GM.
The nucleotide sequence of a human Blym-1 transforming gene activated in a Burkitt's lymphoma cell line was determined. This sequence predicts a small protein of 58 amino acids that is 33 percent identical to the predicted product of chicken Blym-1, the activated transforming gene of chicken B cell lymphomas. Both the human and chicken Blym-1 genes exhibit significant identity to an amino-terminal region of transferrins.

Cell. 1985 Sep;42(2):581-8.
Activation of a novel human transforming gene, ret, by DNA rearrangement.

Takahashi M, Ritz J, Cooper GM.
A novel transforming gene was detected by transfection of NIH 3T3 cells with human lymphoma DNA. The tumor DNA induced a single focus in primary transfections, whereas DNAs of transformed NIH cells induced transformation with high efficiencies in secondary and tertiary assays. Molecular clones spanning about 37 kb of human sequence were isolated from tertiary transformant DNA. Blot hybridization indicated that the transforming gene consisted of two segments that were unlinked in both normal human and primary lymphoma DNAs. The two segments of human DNA were cotranscribed in transformed NIH cells but not in any human cells examined. The transforming gene thus appeared to be activated by recombination between two unlinked human DNA segments, possibly by cointegration during transfection.

Cell. 1986 Jan 17;44(1):167-76.
Biological and biochemical properties of human rasH genes mutated at codon 61.

Der CJ, Finkel T, Cooper GM.
Using site-directed mutagenesis, we have introduced mutations encoding 17 different amino acids at codon 61 of the human rasH gene. Fifteen of these substitutions increased rasH transforming activity. The remaining two mutants, encoding proline and glutamic acid, displayed transforming activities similar to the normal gene. Overall, these mutants vary over 1000-fold in transforming potency. Increased levels of p21 expression were required for transformation by weakly transforming mutants. The mutant proteins were unaltered in guanine nucleotide binding properties. However, all 17 different mutant proteins displayed equivalently reduced rates of GTP hydrolysis, 8- to 10-fold lower than the normal protein. There was no quantitative correlation between reduction in GTPase activity and transformation, indicating that reduced GTP hydrolysis is not sufficient to activate ras transforming potential.

1989年,发现原癌基因与精子的减数分裂有关。

Science. 1989 Aug 18;245(4919):740-3.
Specific expression of nuclear proto-oncogenes before entry into meiotic prophase of spermatogenesis.

Wolfes H, Kogawa K, Millette CF, Cooper GM.
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA.

The expression of proto-oncogenes representative of several functional categories has been investigated during development of mouse male germ cells. The c-raf proto-oncogene and three members of the c-ras gene family were expressed in mitotically active stem cells, throughout the prophase of meiosis and to varying extents in post-meiotic cell types. In contrast, the nuclear proto-oncogenes c-fos, c-jun, and c-myc were specifically expressed at high levels in type B spermatogonia. High levels of c-myc and c-jun RNAs were also detected in spermatocytes early in the prophase of meiosis. The type B spermatogonia represent the last mitotic cell division before entry into meiotic prophase; therefore, these nuclear proto-oncogenes may be involved in altering programs of gene expression at this developmental transition.
对于一个研究人员来说,最基本的素养是如何发现问题,如何分析问题,以及如何解决问题。

对这三个关节的掌握和熟练程度进行规范化,是对研究生教育的基础问题,也是提升个人创新能力的关键所在。

发现问题并不是一件容易的事情,特别是发现有意义的问题,具有开创能力的研究人员一般都能提出具有方向意义的问题,而一般的人员提出来的问题几乎都是一个方向中的小问题。一般人提出的问题不能成为问题。什么样的问题是问题,什么问题是假问题需要分析。

问题分析的过程主要包括所提出的问题是不是真问题,还是其他问题的转换(假问题),如果是真问题,那么这个问题包括那些问题,属于那类问题,是不是完全不能归类,等等,这个过程主要是鉴定这个问题的价值程度,也是确立课题和准备如何解决问题的过程。

解决问题,主要是对问题分析的基础上,采用什么工具解决问题,目前是不是存在这样的工具,不存在,可能需要首先设计新工具来解决等等。

癌症研究的基本思路:

任何健康机体都是机体各部分相互有效协作的结果,任何疾病都是致病因素导致机体某个部分不能正常工作的结果。研究病因就是找出机体不应存在的物质或者找出机体缺失的物质,发病机制就是找出与增加或者缺失(包括结构改变导致功能增加或丢失)物质(病因)作用的物质以及引发的后续效应。

既然疾病是机体有效协同的结果,那么正常范围的物质和功能非常重要,这是评定疾病的标准。不知道正常不会知道异常。

如果机体是某些物质增加或者减少超过一定范围的结果,那么癌症也应当是某些物质增加或者减少的结果。是什么物质增加或者减少的结果?

癌细胞除了基因的扩增或者丢失外,染色体也增加或者丢失。什么是最重要的改变?那些改变可以逆转?那些依照现在的技术无法逆转?

基本上人类的很多疾病通过缺什么补什么,什么多去什么可以解决问题。但是对于肿瘤来说?去什么?补什么?怎么去?怎么补?
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